^ 


!^& 


nS*     S        <:? 


r 


i^ 


!I  ! 


^r 


>^^ 


PRODUCT! 

SWINE 
HUSBAN 


r 


r 


BY  G.E.DAY   B.& 


f '.  5 


i-jS 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2009  witii  funding  from 

NCSU  Libraries 


littp://www.archive.org/details/productiveswineliOOdayg 


O/^t^P-^   Oh.    -y^ ^1^144^^^ 


The  first  farmer  was  the  first  man,  and  all  historic 
nobility  rests  on  possession  and  use  of  land." 

— Embrson. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM    MANUALS 

EDITED  BY 

KARY  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.  (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR   OF   AGRICULTURE,  SCHOOL  OP   COUNTRY  LIFE,  GEORGE 
rXABODY  COLLEGE  FOR  TEACHERS,  NASHVILLE,  TENNESSEE. 


PRODUCTIVE 
SWINE  HUSBANDRY 

By  GEORGE  E.  DAY,  B.S.A. 

PROFBSSOR   OF  ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY,   ONTARIO  AGRICULTUHAL 
COLLEGE,   GUELPH,   ONTARIO,    CANADA. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM  MANUALS 

Edited  l.y  K.  C.  DAVIS.  Ph.D. 

SECOND    1  UITIDN  Rl  VISl  I) 

TRODUCTIVE  SWINE  HUSBANDRY 

Bv  GKORGE  E.  DAY,  B.S.A.  ^1.75  net. 

THIRD   EDITION  REVISED  AM)   KNI.AR(.KI) 

PRODUCTIVE  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Ry  HARin'  R.  LEWIS,  H.S.  f 2.00  net. 

SECOND   EDITION   REVISED 

PRODUCTIVl-;  HORSE  HUSBANDRY 

By  carl  \V.  gay,  B.S.A.  fi.7S  ntt. 

PRODUCnVE  ORCHARDING 

By  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S.  $1-75  ntt. 

THIRD    EDITION   REVISED 

I'RODUCTIVE  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

By  JOHN  W.  LLOYD,  M.S.A.  $1.75  net. 

SECOND   EDITION   REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 

I'RODI'CTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

By  V.  W.  WOLL,  Ph.D.  $1.75  vet. 

SECOND  EDITION 

COMMON  DISEASES  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 
By  R.  a.  CRAIG,  D.V.M.  $1.75  nei. 

SECOND  EDITION 

PRODUCTIVE  FARM  CROPS 

By  E.  G.  MONTGOMERY,  M.A.         $1.75  net. 

SftOND   EDITION  REVISED 

PRODUCTIVE  BEE  KEEPING 

By  frank  C.  PELLETT  $1.75  net. 

PRODUCTIVE  DAIRYING 

By  R.  M.  WASHBURN  $1.75  ml. 

LNJLKJorS  INSECTS  AND  USEFUL  BIRDS 
I'.v  V.  L  WASHFiURN,  M.A.  $2.00  net. 

PRODUCTIVE  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY 

Bv  W.\I.'II:R   C.  (■<lFFI-:^■  $3.^0  net. 


«  •s 


AV\    •  «  M 


LiPPiNCOTT'S  Farm  Manuals 

EDH  KD  BY  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.  (Cornell). 


PRODUCTIVE 
SWINE  HUSBANDRY 


BY 

GEORGE  E.  DAY,  B.S.A. 

PROFESSOR  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY,  AND  FARM  SUPERINTENDENT,  ONTARIO 
AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE,  GUELPH,  ONTARIO,  CANADA. 


95  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TEXT 

SECOND  EDITION,  REVISED 


"  If  vain  our  toil. 
We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  the  soil." 

Pope — Essay  on  Man. 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,    1 91 3 
BY   J.     B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


COPTBIGHT.    lOIS 
UY  J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT  lOMPANY 


FJtclTotyptd  and  friuteJ  by 
J.  B.  LippincoU  Comfony.  Philadelphia,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 

Ix  presenting  this  revised  edition  of  Productive  Swine 
Husbandry  to  the  public,  the  author  wishes  to  express  his  ap- 
preciation of  the  reception  accorded  the  first  edition,  for  whicli 
the  demand  has  exceeded  expectations. 

In  the  revision,  new  material  has  been  added  for  the  purpose 
of  widening  the  scope  of  the  book  and  making  the  text  more  gen- 
erally applicable  to  all  latitudes.  Certain  faults  of  the  origi- 
nal book  have  been  corrected,  and  important  additions  have 
been  made  to  the  illustrations.  In  short,  an  effort  has  been  made 
to  bring  the  book  up  to  date,  and  to  make  it  a  suitable  text- 
book for  agricultural  students  as  well  as  a  convenient  and  valu- 
able reference  book  for  the  busy  farmer. 

The  author  wishes  to  gratefully  acknowledge  the  assistance 
rendered  him  by  Professor  K.  C.  Davis,  the  editor  of  the  book, 
and  also  by  Professor  C.  L.  Willoughbv  of  the  University  of 
Florida,  who  has  furnished  many  pertinent  suggestions  in  con- 
nection with  the  revision. 

George  E.  Day. 

Ontario  AoRicrLTrRAL  College, 
Guelph,  Ontario,  Canada. 


^^-^^      /P      J:/a.tAA:.C^ 


PREFACE 

Ix  the  preparation  of  material  for  this  book,  the  author 
has  worked  with  a  twofold  purpose, — namely,  to  prepare  a 
l)ook  which  will  serve  as  a  text-book  for  agricultural  students, 
and  to  place  at  tlie  disposal  of  the  busy  fanner  a  reference  book 
which  will  give  him,  in  concise  form,  the  findings  of  the  best 
experiment  stations  in  regard  t(j  the  j)rol)leiiis  IiivoIvimI  in  the; 
succassful  handling  of  swine.  As  to  whether  these  objects  have 
been  attained,  tlie  })ublic  must  be  the  judge. 

In  the  treatment  of  the  different  breeds  of  swine,  and 
other  topics  where  favoritism  or  partiality  is  |X)ssi])le,  it  has 
been  the  purpose  of  tlie  writer  to  state  the  exact  tnith  and  givi; 
"  both  sides  of  the  case."  Where  direct  comparisons  arc  ad- 
vantageous, tliey  have  been  made  without  fear  of  criticism. 

Although  the  treatment  of  each  topic  is  concise,  it  has 
been  the  desire  to  make  the  survey  of  the  field  as  cosmo- 
politan as  possible, — no  single  section  of  the  country  has  been 
in  the  writer's  mind. 

No  effort  has  been  made  to  avoid  tlie  practical  sides  of 
the  subject  in  order  that  a  certain  type  of  schools  might  prefer 
the  book.  On  the  other  hand,  the  practical  sides  have  l)een 
placed  foremost,  with  the  belief  that  all  students  as  well  as 
breeders  should  prefer  to  think  of  the  subject  in  a  practical 
way.  An  effort  has  been  made,  however,  to  treat  the  matter 
concisely  and  logically,  and  arrange  the  topics  in  order.  The 
chapters  have  been  grouped  into  seven  parts  to  make  them  more 
easily  referred  to  by  both  students  and  breeders. 

The  review  questions  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  are  given 
for  the  use  of  students  who  may  not  be  thinking  of  the  sub- 

vii 


viii  PIIEFACE 

ject  from  tlie  prat'ticid  sidf.  Tlu'V  may  also  l)0  usod  bv  the 
beginner  us  a  '*  check  list  *'  of  the  problems  he  is  U>  encounter 
from  time  to  time  in  his  new  undertaking. 

The  chapter  (»n  "  Suggestions  to  Beginners  ''  is  written  with 
the  special  desire  to  give  the  right  words  of  counsel  to  those  who 
for  the  lirst  time  are  taking  up  annual  breeding  of  swine. 

The  beginner,  tlie  professional  swine-breeder,  the  general 
farmer  with  a  Miiall  herd,  and  the  student  have  all  In-cn  kept 
in  miixl   while  jtreparing  this  Wdrk. 

The  author  will  be  glad  to  receive  criticisms  of  any  parts 
of  the  book. 

George  E.  Day. 

Ontario  Ar.RirrLxrRAL  College, 
Guelph,  Ontario,  Canada. 


COXTFATS 

PART  I— INTR()l)r(  TORY 

1.  The  Place  of  the  Hog  Vpos  the  Fakm '.i 

II.  Types  of  Swine 9 

PART  II.— PRINCIPLES  OF  SWINE  BREEDING 

III.  Breeding  and  Selection 25 

PART  III— BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

IV.  Relation  of  Breed  to  Economy  of  Production 41 

V.  The  Berkshire  Breed 45 

VI.  The  Poland-China  Breed 54 

VII.  The  Chester  White  Bref;i) 65 

VIII.  The  Dcroc-Jersey  Breed 75 

IX.  The  Hampshire  Breed  (Thin  Rind) 83 

X.  The  Large  Yorkshire  or  Large  White  Breed 90 

XI.  The  Tamworth  Breed 97 

XII.  The  Victoria  Breed 103 

XIII.  The  Cheshire  Breed 107 

XIV.  The  Essex  Breed 110 

XV.  The  Suffolk  Breed 114 

X\T.  The  Small  Yorkshire  Breed 116 

XVII.  Three     Minor     Breeds, — Mule-Foot,     Large     Black, 

Middle  White 120 

PART  IV.— RESLTLTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDLNG 

XVIII.  Miscellaneous  Investigations 131 

XIX.  Corn 142 

XX.  Supplementary  Feeds  with  Corn 150 

XXI.  Various  Grains,  Meals,  and  By-products 164 

XXII.  Pasture  and  Soiling  Crops.  * 186 

XXIII.  Roots,    Potatoes,    Pumpkins,    Apples,    and    Dairy    By- 

products    205 

XXIV.  Prepar.\tion  of  Feed 213 

ix 


Z  CXDNTEXTS 

PART  v.— FEEDINC  AM)  MANACKMKNT 

XXV.  The  Boar ^19 

XX\I.  The  Sow 226 

XX\II.  The  Younq  Pigs 236 

XXMII.  Fatteninc; 243 

XXIX.  Suggestions  to  Be<;i.\neks 262 

PART  VI.— MARKKTIN(;  AM)  (  IKINC; 

XXX.  Maukets  AM)  Swine  Puoulcts 273- 

XXXI.  CUKING  POHK 285 

P.\RT  VII.— BUILDINGS.  SA.MTATIO.V.  A.M)  DISEASED 

XXXII.  Buildings 295 

XXXIII.  S.\nitatio.\ 319 

XXXIW  CuM.Mu.N  Diseases  of  Swine 327 

XXXV.  Composition  of  Feeding  Stuffs 352 

Swine  Literature ...  356 

Index ...     357 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

riG.  PAGE 

"  Mortgage  I^iftcr?  "  in  Comfort Frontispiece 

1.  Champion  Chester  Wlute  Barrow 6 

2.  Poland-China  Barrow 7 

3.  Grand  Champion  Pen  of  Barrows 11 

4.  Pen  of  Chester  White  Barrows 1- 

5.  Grouj)  of  Young  Large  Yorkshire  Sows 11 

6.  Diagram  Showing  Location  of  Points  of  Hog l^' 

7.  Rear  View  of  Pig  of  Bacon  T\7)e 17 

8.  Young  Sow  of  Same  Type 1^ 

9.  Land-race  Sow 32 

10.  Chester  White  Boar 35 

1 1 .  Large  Yorkshire  Boar •  •  36 

1 2.  Excellent  Type  of  Breed. ng  Sow 37 

13.  Champion  Herd  of  Berkshires 4li 

14.  Champion  Pen  of  Berkshire  Barrows 4/ 

1.3.  Champion  Berkshire  Boar 48 

16.  Berkshire  Sow  of  Nearly  Bacon  Ty;  c 50 

17.  Berkshire  Sow 51 

15.  Champion  Poland-China  Sow 55 

19.  Yearling  Poland-China  Boar 56 

20.  Chester  Wlnte  Boar 63 

21.  A  Prize-winning  Chester  White  Sow 68 

22.  Duroc-Jersey  Boar ^^6 

23.  Two-year-old  Duroc-Jersey  Sow ' ' 

24.  Herd  of  Hampshire  Swine ^ 

25.  Large  Yorkshire  Sow ^^ 

26.  Champion  and  Reserve  Champion  Large  Yorkshire  Sows 93 

27.  Tamworth  Boar ^'^ 

28.  Canadian-bred  Tamworth  Boar ^^ 

29.  Group  of  Tamworth  Sows ^^ 

30.  Pair  of  Tamworth  Sows ^"^ 

31.  Two-year-old  Victoria  Boar ^^'^ 

32.  Cheshire  Barrow ^^'^ 

33.  Essex  Boar ^  ^  1 

34.  Small  White  Sow ^  16 

35.  Small  White  Boar ^  1" 

36.  Large  Black  Sow ^  — 

37.  Large  Black  Boar ^-'^ 

xi 


»i  ILLUSTRATIONS 

38.  Middle  White  Sow 124 

39.  Middle  Wliite  Hour 125 

40.  Pair  of  Middle  White  Harrows 126 

41.  Oats  and  Peas 165 

42.  Good  Plump  Wheat ;  Poor  Wheat 168 

43.  Hlack-hulled  White  Kafir 169 

44.  Alfalfa 187 

45.  Cow-peas 195 

46n.  Side  View  of  Alfalfa  Rack 202 

466.  End  View  of  Same 202 

47.  Hog  Motor  Grinder  and  Feeder 215 

48.  Type  of  Self-feeding  Hopper 216 

49.  Yearling  Berkshire  Boar 221 

50.  Breeding  Crate 223 

51.  Three-year-old  Chester  White  Sow 230 

52.  Method  of  I-\astening  Guard  Rail  to  Wall 233 

53.  Group  of  Yorkshire  Bacon  Pigs 239 

54.  Yearling  Duroc-Jcrse\'  Sow 246 

55.  Panel  and  Support  of  Portable  Hurdle  Fence 252 

56.  Duroc-Jerscy  Pigs  Digging  Johnson  Griuss  Roots  ()i\  a  Corn  Headland  253 

57.  Mature  Sow  in  Pasture 254 

58.  Piggery  at  the  Mississippi  Experiment  Station   255 

59.  Hog    Colony    Hou.se    Recommended    by    Mis.si.ssippi    Agricultural 

College ." 259 

60.  One  Method  of  Numbering  Pigs  by  Means  of  Ear  Marks 267 

61.  Another  Method  of  Kar-marking  Pigs 267 

62.  "Prime  Heavy  Hogs" 274 

63.  "Prime  Medivmi  Butchers" 275 

64.  "  Prime  Heavy  Butchers" 276 

65.  "Choice  Bacon" 278 

66.  Diagram  of  Wiltshire  Side,  showing  Method  of  Cutting 280 

67.  Group  of  Selected  Danish  Bacon  Hogs  Suitable  for  Making  Choice 

Wiltshire  Sides 281 

68.  A  No.  1  Wilt.shire  Side;  a  Fat  Side 282 

69.  King  System  of  Ventilation  for  Dairy  Barn  or  Hog-house 297 

70.  Plan  of  Piggery 299 

71 .  Cross-section  of  Piggery 301 

72.  Plan  of  Small  Piggery.'. .  .  304 

73.  Ground  Plan  of  Maryland  Piggi-ry 307 

74.  Cross-section  of  Maryland  Piggery 307 

75.  Front  Elevation  of  Maryland  Piggery 307 

76.  Front  View  of  Portable  Pen 309 

77.  End  View  of  Portable  Pen 309 

78.  End  View  of  A-shaped  House 310 

79.  Side  Vi?\v'  of  A-shaped  House 310 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

80.  Front  View  of  Shed-roof  House ;{i;j 

81.  End  View  of  Slied-roof  House ;{13 

82.  A  1  ype  of  Galvanized  Metal  Portable  Pen ;il4 

83.  Attachment  for  Shed-roof  Portable  Pen  to  Give  Outside  Shade 315 

84.  End  View  of  Farrowing  Pen 316 

So.  Front  View  of  Farrowing  Pen 317 

8ti.  A  Form  of  Brood  House  for  Sow  and  Pigs 321 

87.  Type  of  Hog  Oiler  to  Destroy  \'ermin 323 

88.  Hog  Dipping  Vat 324 

89.  Concrete  Hog  Wallow 324 

90.  Ulcers  (Large  Intestine),  Chronic  Form 328 

91.  "Button  Llcers"  (Large  Intestine),  Chronic  Form 328 

92.  Group  of  Cholera  Pigs 328 

93.  Injecting  Serum  behind  Shoulder  (Large  Hog) 329 

94.  Injecting  Serum  into  Mu.scle  of  Ham  (Pig) 330 

95.  Injecting  Serum  behind  Ear  (Large  Hog) 331 


PART  1 

INTRODUCTORY 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  PLACE  OF  THE  HOG  UPON  THE  FARM. 

TiiK  swine  iiulustry  oc*cii[)ic's  a  rather  ix'ciiliar  pusitiuii  in 
many  localities.  Swine  ninltiply  ra})i(ll_v  and  come  into  use 
for  Ureeiling-  at  an  earlier  age  thaii  other  farm  aninuils;  oun- 
seqiieutly,  it  t^kes  only  a  short  time  for  farmers  to  increase 
or  decrease^  their  stock,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  Hog  Supply. — ^When,  owing  to  scarcity  in  the  supply 
of  iiogs,  th(^  ])rice  for  hogs  goes  up,  we  find  farmers  increasing 
the  nnniher  of  hrceiling  sows,  and  in  a  very  short  time  the 
supj)iy  of  hogs  coming  to  market  increases  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  price  is  likely  to  break.  If  the  decrease  in  price  is 
very  severe,  the  farmer  becomes  disgusted,  and  the  chances 
are  that  many  farmers  will  sell  their  breeding  sows  and  pi-ae- 
tically  go  out  of  the  business.  This  unloading  process  adds 
to  the  burden  of  the  market,  and  general  demoralization  is 
apt  to  follow.  By  and  by,  after  the  market  has  absorbed  the 
excessive  supplies  thrown  upon  it,  a  scarcity  occurs  again, 
owing  to  so  many  having  gone  out  of  the  business  of  hog 
raising,  and  prices  once  more  reach  a  high  level.  This  is  a 
signal  for  farmers  to  rush  again  into  hog  raising,  and  overstock 
their  fanns  in  many  cases,  so  that  once  more  the  market 
becomes  top-heavy,  and  the  history  of  the  hog  market  repeats 
itself. 

Xow,  it  is  alt(-gether  probable  that  very  few  of  those  who 
were  tempted  to  rush  into  the  business  on  account  of  high 
prices  obtained  any  profit  from  the  venture.  They  ])aid  high 
prices  for  breeding  stock,  but  by  the  time  they  had  hogs  ready 
for  the  market,  the  decline  in  prices  l>egan,  and  before  they 
were  through  they  were  selling  their  hogs  at  a  loss. 

(3) 


1  INTRODUCTORY 

Profit  from  Hogs. — The  man  who  makes  money  out  of 
hogs  is  the  miui  who.  lias  hogs  to  sell  when  prices  are  high, 
whose  farm  is  never  over-stocked,  nor  vcl  eiitinly  depleted  of 
its  supply.  He  kin»ws  how  many  hogs  his  farm  will  carry  to 
advantage  under  avcnigc  circumstances,  and  he  practises  a 
wise  conservatism.  When  prices  are  high,  he  has  a  good  proiit, 
when  tliey  are  low,  his  profit  is  small,  but  the  average  is  fairly 
satisfactory.  He  may  slightly  expand  or  contract  his  operations 
at  various  times,  but  he  never  '*  i)lunges." 

The  "plunger''  is  apt  to  tind  himself  "in"  the  hog 
business  when  he  ought  to  1k'  "•  ont."  and  "out"  when  he 
ought  to  1)('  '•  in."  The  other  man  is  "  in  "  nt  ;ill  tinws,  hut 
never  to  .such  an  extent  as  to  be  seriously  damaged  when  the 
mai'kct  goes  wi'ong. 

Judgment  Required. —  It  is  not  the  object  of  the  writer  to 
urge  farmers  to  feed  nioi-c  hogs — far  from  it.  Every  farmer 
must  be  his  own  judge  in  this  matter,  and  many  farmers 
shoiiJd  never  attempt  to  raise  hogs,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
either  the  man  himself  is  not  adapted  to  the  business  or  his 
conditions  are  unsuitable.  Xevertludess,  it  is  true  that  a  few 
hogs  might  be  kept  profitably  upon  many  farms  where  they  do 
not  find  a  place  to-day. 

Hogs  use  By-products. — Generally  speaking,  tlu'  hog  niav 
bo  regarded  a.s  a  by-i)roduct  of  the  farm,  or,  in  other  words, 
ho  is  a  means  of  marketing  the  by-products  of  the  farm.  In 
the  cattle  feed  lots,  we  find  him  utili/.ing  the  corn  which  the 
cattle  have  failed  to  digest  and  which  othenvise  would  be 
wasted.  In  the  dairy  district,  he  is  the  means  of  obtaining 
good  value  for  skim  milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey.  Where 
mixed  farming  is  practised,  he  consumes  any  dairy  by-products, 
small  potatoes,  and  various  other  unmarketable  substances,  and 
gleans  the  stubble  fields,   returning  to  his  o^^^^er  cash  value 


THE  HOG  UPON  THE  FARM  5 

for  sulxstances  that  aro  completely  neglected  on  many  farms. 
Kvc'ii  the  cottaiivr  freciuently  utilizes  him  to  obtain  a  cash 
return  from  kitchen  refuse  and  table  scraps.  It  is  as  a  con- 
sumer of  l)y-i)roducts  and  socalled  worthless  materials  that 
the  hog  shows  to  the  best  advantage  from  the  stand-point  of 
profit. 

Marketing  Home-grown.  Feeds. — The  farmer  who  raises 
most  of  his  own  feed  is  in  a  much  better  position  to  fi^Ml  hogs, 
or  any  other  class  of  stock,  than  the  man  who  has  to  purchase 
all  his  feed.  The  farmer  who  grows  his  own  feed  may  not 
get  any  more  than  market  prices  for  the  grain  or  other  ])roduce 
consumed  by  the  hogs,  and  may  still  have  a  fair  profit  through 
selling  his  produce  at  market  prices  in  the  form  of  pork ;  but  the 
man  who  buys  his  feed  can  have  for  profit  only  what  he  obtains 
in  excess  of  the  market  value  of  the  feeds  consumed  by  the 
hogs.  Thus  the  farmer  who  grows  his  feed  has  two  sources 
of  profit,  namely,  the  grower's  profit,  or  the  profit  obtained  by 
selling  his  produce  at  market  price;  together  with  the  feeder's 
profit,  or  what  he  ol)tains  for  his  ])roduce  in  excess  of  market 
]irice  by  selling  it  in  the  form  of  pork.  The  man  who  Inis 
to  buy  all  the  ])roduce  which  he  feeds  his  hogs  can  have  oidy 
the  feeder's  profit,  and  under  unfavorable  conditions  this  profit 
may  be  so  small  that  it  will  scarcely  pay  for  the  labor  involved. 

Raising  Pigs.- — Another  ])oint  worthy  of  consideration  is 
the  fact  that  under  favorable  eoiiditioiis  and  skilful  manage- 
ment young  pigs  can  he  raised  for  feeding  at  a  lower  cost 
than  that  for  which  they  can  l>e  bought.  This  point  will  Ix' 
dealt  with  more  fully  in  Chapter  XXVII,  but  is  mentioned 
here  as  one  of  the  factors  which  hel])  to  explain  why  some 
people  can  make  hog  feeding  profitable,  while  others  cannot. 

One  of  the  great  difficulties  in  connection  with  the  swine 
industry  is  the  fact  that  so  many  people  are  not  content  to 


6 


LN'TRODrCTORY 


engage  in  tlio  uiitlcrtiikinu'  cxi-ciit  tui  a  lar^c  scale,  and  tlic 
jK'oplo  who  fan  liandic  Imos  in  lariic  nnnilH'Vs  and  make  tlie 
business  a  financial  sncccss  arc  coniparativcly  tVw.  'l'li(»  aver- 
age fanner  is  safer  to  handle  hogs  in  rather  snniU  numbers, 
and  use  them  as  an  adjunct  to  his  other  fann  operations.  Used 
in  tliis  wav,  and  handled  with  a  reasonable  defj^-ee  of  jndirment. 


Fiu.   1.— Champion  Chcatnr  Whitf  harrow  at  ChioaRo,  oxhihjted  by  the  luwa  Agricultural 
College.     Tills  hog  is  ulmost  the  extreme  lut  type. 

the  hog  will  give  a  good  account,  of  himself  in  adding  to  the 
revenue  and  the  profits  from  the  fann.  A  very  few  years' 
experience  should  enable  a  farmer  to  detennine  just  abont 
linw  many  Irngs  he  can  raise  to  advantage.  Some  farms  will 
carry  very  large  numbers  owing  to  the  syst^^m  of  fanning  which 
is  carried  on,  but  for  many  of  the  snudler  farms  one  breeding 
sow  is  plenty. 


THE  HOG  UPON  THE  FARM 


On  Dairy  Farms. — The  ho-j:  tits  in  (^specially  well  upon 
dairy  farms  -where  skim  milk,  bnttcrmilk,  or  whey  lias  to  be 
fed  upon  the  farm.  Perhaps  no  animal  will  i;-ive  as  high 
returns  for  dairy  hy-pi-oducts  eonsumcd,  as  the  lioi>-,  and  no 
feed  gives  a  finer  (pudity  of  bacon  than  dairy  by-])r(Mlucts.  It 
is  also  worthy  of  note  that  the  man  who  has  skim  milk  is  in  a 


Fig.   2. — Polantl-Chinii  harrow,  cliampion  at  the  international  Kxpo.silion.     This  hog  reprt- 
sents  practically  perfection  of  form  from  a  lard  hog  standpoint. 


better  position  to  raise  pigs  than  the  man  who  has  none,  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  satisfactory  sul>stitute 
for  skim  milk  for  young  pigs  just  after  weaning. 

Pure-bred  Hogs. — What  has  l>een  said  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs  has  no  refqrence  to  the  raising  of  pure-bred  hogs 
for  breeding  purjioses,  but  ap])lies  simply  to  the  production 
of  market  hogs.      The  breeders  of  pure-bred  hogs  understand 


8  INTRODUCTORY 

their  business,  and  kii<»\v  about,  liow  far  their  conditions 
warrant  the  extension  of  their  ulcerations,  so  that  it  is  not  so 
necessary  to  offer  suggestions  to  thciii  along  this  line.  It  is 
true  that  the  breeder  of  market  liogs  always  has  a  use  for  pure 
blood,  but  it  is  not  every  person  who  can  make  a  success  of 
breeding  pure-breds  to  supply  the  demand  fur  bree<ling  stock, 
and  the  average  farmer  is  safer  to  adhere  to  i)roduciiig  nuirkct 
hogs. 

To  sum  up,  it  may  be  said  that  the  hug  is  es{)i'cially  valu- 
able for  consuming  the  by-products  of  the  farm,  and  tlie 
number  of  hogs  carried  to  advantage  upon  a  farm  is  governed 
very  largely  by  the  quantity  and  character  of  the  by-products 
to  be  consumed.  When  carried  in  apjuvipriate  numbers,  the 
hog  is  an  exceptionally  economical  producer  of  meat,  i)reventiug 
waste,  and  giving  cash  returns  for  substauce-s  that  are  fre- 
quently wasted,  or  which  have  little  market  value.  Trying  to 
take  advantage  of  fluctuating  market  prices  by  alternately  over- 
stocking and  under-stfK'king  with  hogs  is  seldom  a  fiiuiuciai 
success.  The  man  who  consistently  follows  uj)  the  business 
upon  conservative  lines  is  the  num  who  i^  well  satisfied  with 
the  hog  as  a  source  of  profit. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Toll  of  the  cfToct  of  tlio  supply  of  hops  on  tlu>  usual  tt'iidcnoy  of 
farmera  to  vary  the  size  of  thoir  honls. 

2.  dive  a  better  plan  of  pcttinj^  profit   from  swino. 

3.  In  what  way  must  each  farmer  In-  his  own  judirc  rorrardinp  the 
raising  of  more  hops? 

4.  Tell  of  the  use  of  hops  as  users  of  In-product^s. 

5.  Which  is  better,  to  raise  or  to  purchase  hop  feed? 

6.  Which  is  usually  better  for  the  feeder,  to  raise  younp  pips  or  to 
buy  them? 

7.  Tell  of  the  fitness  of  swine  upon  dairy  farms. 

8.  Under  what  circumstances  should  pure-bred  hops  be  kejit? 


CHAPTER  11. 
TYPES   OF  SWINE. 

There  are  tM'o  well-detinod  tvpes  of  lioji's,  which  arc  the 
ontconie  of  local  conditions  and  market  requirements, — namely, 
the  fat  or  lard  ty]ie  and  the  bacon  type. 

Reasons  for  Two  Types. — The  fat  or  lard  type  of  hog;  is 
the  product  of  the  "  com  belt."  Corn  fee<ling  has  a  tendency 
to  produce  fat  at  the  expense  of  the  muscle  or  lean  meat,  and 
com  is  the  principal  hog  feed  of  the  United  States.  Most  of 
the  hogs  of  the  United  States  are  grown  in  the  great  corn- 
producing  States,  aiul  it  is  here  we  find  the  lard  type  in  its 
highest  degree  of  perfection.  This  type  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  exports  of  the  coimtry. 

But,  in  addition  to  the  demand  for  the  products  of  the 
lard  hog,  there  is  an  important  demajid,  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  for  a  leaner  class  of  meat.  In  some  of  the  large 
cities  of  England  this  demand  has  taken  a  definite  form,  and 
what  is  kno^\Ti  as  the  "  Wiltshire  side  "  is  especially  designed 
to  meet  this  demand.  A  hog  suitable  for  manufacturing  into 
"  Wiltshire  sides  "  is  kno\\Ti  as  a  "  bacon  hog,"  and  breeding 
stock  of  a  type  suitable  for  producing  bacon  hogs  is  said  to 
possess  bacon  tA^^e.  Bacon  hogs  cannot  Ix^  produced  success- 
fully under  a  system  of  com  feeding,  and  hence  we  find  the 
bacon  hog  produced  in  greater  numbers  in  countries  where  the 
feed  for  the  hog  is  more  varied  in  character,  and  where  tlie 
conditions  are  less  favorable  for  producing  the  lard  hog  than 
they  are  in  the  United  States.  The  countries  sending  the 
greatest  number  of  Wiltshire  sides  to  Great  Britain  are  Den- 
mark, Canada,  and  Ireland.     Generally  speaking,  hogs  cannot 


10  INTRODUCTORY 

be  groMni  so  cheaply  in  Canada  and  Denmark  as  they  can  in 
the  United  States,  particnhirly  in  tlic  corn  Itclt  ;  hut,  on  the 
other  hand,  Wiltsliirc  sides  usually  foniniand  a  lii<;her  priec 
])er  pound  in  Knjiland  than  the  meat  of  the  lard  hog.  This 
higher  j)rice  for  tinished  jjroduct  afl'ords  some  ])r<>tection  to  the 
swine  industry  in  ( 'anada  and  Pcnniark,  and  it  was  to  escape 
direct  conii)etition  with  the  American  jiroduct  in  Great  Britain 
tliat  Canada  and  Denmark  engaged  in  the  production  of  bacon 
hogs  and  the  manufacture  of  Wihshire  sides.  Such  an  arrange- 
ment seems  to  be  the  ])art  of  wisdom,  each  country  devoting 
its  attention  to  the  type  of  Img  which  it  can  prmhicc  t<»  best 
advantage. 

The  fat  or  lard  type  of  hog  is  characterized  by  a  comjiact, 
thick,  dee]),  smooth  Ixxly,  remarkable  for  its  depth  and  thick- 
ness rather  than  its  length.  There  should  be  ;i  ))roportionate 
develoj)ment  of  the  ditl'erent  i)arts,  and  all  parts  slundd  blend 
smoothly  together,  giving  what  is  called  com])actness  of  form. 
The  hams,  back,  and  shoulders  are  the  most  valuaMe  ])arts 
fi-om  a  market  stand-])oint,  and  should  be  largely  developed. 
The  market  hog  should  be  fattened  to  a  high  degret^  becausi' 
lard  is  an  important  consideration  with  the  packer,  and  a  well- 
fattened  hog  will  dress  a  larger  ])ercentage  of  its  live  weight 
than  one  which  is  not  well  finished,  which  is  another  important 
point  with  the  jtacker.     (See  Figs.  1  and  2.) 

QuaUtij  is  denoted  by  fine  hair,  smo<ith,  clean  skin,  rather 
fine,  clean  Iwne,  and  even  distribution  of  Hesh.  There  should 
be  no  wrinkles  in  the  skin,  the  jowl  should  be  broad,  ])luiii|», 
and  full,  but  not  flabby,  and  the  belly  should  1m-  reasonably 
trim,  that  is,  not  sagging  or  baggy  in  a])])earanee.  In  breed- 
ing animals,  some  allowance  would  have  to  be  made  for  sows 
which  had  produced  several  litters  of  pigs. 


TYPES  OF  SWINE 


11 


Tlie  aiilinal  .should  \)c  aide  to  walk  frtvly,  willioiit  apparent 
effort,  and  the  fxistenis  s^liould  lx»  short  and  npriuht. 

The  siKiiil  should  he  nKuk-ratclv  tine,  tho  faco  wide  !)<■- 
tweon  the  cyos,  and  the  poll  Aviile  and  full.  Widtli  hetwwn 
the  eves  and  fulness  of  poll  denote  a  good  feeder.     The  eijr 


Fig.   3. — Grant!  champion  pen  of  barrows  at  the  International  Exposition. 


.shonld  he  full,  hricht,  and  of  good  size,  and  there  should  be  an 
absence  of  creases  and  folds  of  fat  about  the  eyes.  The  size  ami 
shape  of  the  ear  varies  in  different  breeds,  but  it  should  be 
fine,  soft,  and  generally  somewhat  small. 

The  joirl  should   he  full,  broad,   deep,   .smooth,   and    firm, 
parrying  its  fulness  well  back  toward  the  point  of  the  shoulder. 


12 


INTRODUCTORY 


The  nech  sliould  Ik-  sIkh-I  and  dec]),  and  sliould  l.lcud  sin(M»tldv 
into  the  shoidder  at  all  parts. 

The  shoulder  of  the  fat  liog  has  considerable  market  value, 
and  hence  should  be  largely  developed.  It  should  be  broad, 
deep,  and  smooth ;  compact  on  top,  blendino;  smoothly  into  the 
body,  and  being-  well  covered  with  ilesh  over  all  its  ])arts.     The 


Fia.    -1.  -  I'cn  .if  Chfslcr  W  hit.'  l.:irrow- 


Iiil('rn:ilioii:il  I'.xp'jMtiMn. 


breast  should  be  \vi<l(>,  deej),  and  rnll,  denoting  cnnsiitnt  ion ; 
and  the  fore-legs  should  be  set  well  apart,  short,  ta])(riiig.  and 
straight.  The  pasterns  should  be  upright,  the  bone  ratlici-  iinc, 
and  clean  cut  in  appearance,  ami  the  feet  strongly  formed. 

Along  the  region  of  the  back  and  loin  lie  some  of  the  most 
valuable  cuts,  and,  therefore,  large  development  is  asked  for 
in  this  region.      The  haeJr  should  be  broad,   straight,   or  very 


TYPES  OF  SWINE  13 

slightly  arched,  medium  length,  iinifurm  width  from  shoulder 
to  ham,  thickly  fleshed,  even,  and  smooth,  without  creases  or 
lumps.  The  loin  should  be  broad,  strong,  full,  and  thickly 
and  smoothly  fleshed.  The  ribs  should  be  well  sj)rung,  and 
the  side  deep,  smooth,  and  even  between  slioulder  and  ham. 

The  heart-gidh  should  be  large,  the  animal  being  full  back 
of  the  shoulder,  and  deep  and  full  at  the  fore  flanks.  The  hind 
flank  should  also  be  deep  and  full. 

The  ham  is  another  important  consideration  from  a  packer's 
stand-point.  It  should  be  broad,  deep,  plum]i,  smuothly  and 
heavily  fleshed,  with  the  flesh  carried  well  down  towards  th(^ 
hock  on  the  inside  as  well  as  at  the  rear.  The  niinp  should 
be  the  same  width  as  the  back,  long,  smooth,  and  slightly 
rounded  from  the  loin  to  the  base  of  the  tail.  The  hind  Icf/s 
should  be  short,  straight,  set  well  apart  and  s(puirely  under 
the  body,  with  bone,  pasterns,  and  feet  as  already  described. 

The  above  description  gives  a  fairly  clear  impression  of 
the  general  type  of  the  fat  hog,  and  shows  how  well  the  type 
meets  the  requirements  of  feeders  in  the  corn  belt.  (See  Figs. 
1,  2,  3,  and  4.) 

Breeds  of  the  Fat  Type. — Poland  China,  Berkshire, 
Chester  White,  and  Duroc-Jersey  are  the  most  popular  breeds 
of  the  fat  type.  Others  of  less  importance  in  America  are 
Cheshire,  Victoria,  small  Yorkshire,  Essex,  and  Suffolk.  For 
consideration  of  these  breeds  see  other  chapters. 

The  Bacon  Type. — To  produce  a  good  Wiltshire  side  of 
bacon  requires  a  hog  of  certain  definite  peculiarities  as  to 
weight,  condition,  and  conformation.  The  customers  for  this 
class  of  bacon  are  extremely  fastidious,  and,  if  the  bacon  does 
not  come  up  to  the  standard  in  every  particidar,  it  is  very 
heavily  discounted  in  price.  As  a  rule,  the  weight  limits  are 
usuallv  fixed  at  160  pounds  to  200  pounds  live  weight.     It 


14 


INTRODUCTORY 


TYPES  OF  SWINE  15 

is  true  that  a  hog  may  Aveigh  slightly  more  than  200  pounds 
and  still  make  a  very  good  Wiltshire  side,  but  most  hogs  arc 
inclined  to  be  too  fat  after  they  pass  the  200-pound  mark,  and 
consequently  this  is  fixed  as  the  limit,  though  it  is  not  strictly 
adhered  to.  As  to  condition,  it  is  possible  to  have  the  hog  too 
thin  or  too  fat.  When  the  carcass  is  split  down  the  back,  the 
layer  of  fat  along  the  back  should  nin  from  an  inch  to  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  thickness,  and  should  be  as  uniform  in 
thickness  as  possible  from  the  loin  to  the  neck.  The  most 
valuable  meat  in  a  Wiltshire  side  is  the  upper  part  of  the 
side  from  the  ham  to  the  back  of  the  shoulder,  including  the 
u]i])er  corner  of  the  gammon  or  ham,  the  loin,  and  the  upper 
half  of  the  ribs.  The  lower  part  of  ham  and  the  flank  and 
l)elly  meat  are  not  worth  as  much  per  pound  as  the  iipper 
])ortion>;,  and  the  shoulder  and  neck  are  comparatively  cheap 
parts. 

Conformation. — In  fonu,  the  bacon  type  of  hog  (Fig.  5) 
is  very  different  from  the  lard  type.  It 'is  longer  in  the  leg 
and  body,  has  less  thickness  and  depth  of  body,  and  is  lighter 
in  the  shoulder,  neck,  and  jowd.  The  hog  should  be  long 
from  the  back  of  the  shoulder  to  tlie  ham,  but  comparatively 
short  from  the  back  of  the  shoulder  to  the  snout.  Along  with 
length,  however,  the  hog  must  have  sufficient  depth  and  thick- 
ness to  denote  constitution.  Xo  nuitter  how  long  in  body  it 
may  be,  if  it  has  long,  coarse  legs,  and  a  narrow,  cramjied 
chest,  it  is  an  undesirable  type  to  breed  from.  A  trim  Ix'liy 
is  desirable,  because  the  belly  meat  is  cheaper  than  the  upper 
l)art  of  the  side.  In  judging  sows  that  have  produced  several 
litters  of  pigs,  some  allowance  must  he  made  in  this  connection. 

A  fine,  smooth  coat  of  hair  denotes  thriftiness  and  good 
(piality  of  flesh.  Wrinkles  on  the  skin,  if  at  all  marke<l. 
indicate  coarse-orained  flesh.      Softness   or  flabbiness   of  flesh 


16 


INTRODUCTOIIV 


(Ic'iiott's  !(»(>  iinu'll  fiit.  ill  |)i-(i]>(iii  idii  lo  Icnii.  Tlifvc  is  a  inarkcMJ 
difference  belweeii  llic  liiiiidliiii;  (|ii;ilil  ics  dl'  a  linislicd  ItiietiU 
hog  and  ;i  linisli('(l  Inr,!  hou,  tlu-  former  being  nincli  tirniei* 
to  the  tuncli.  The  hactjn  tyi)e  uf  hog  has  lieavicr  bone  than 
the  fat  or  bird  1  >■])(',  l)nt  very  coarse,  puffy  hooking  l)one  denotes 
])oor  (piality  of  llesb  and  is  often  ass(>eiate(l  with  poor  feecliiig 
qualities,  Thougli  tlio  lyonc  is  faii'ly  heavy,  the  h'gs  should 
present  a  elean-ent  ap|icar:iiiee. 


Fia.  6. — Diagram  .showing  location  of  poiiit.s  of  the  Iior.  1.  Miiout ;  2,  face;  3,  poll;  4. 
jowl;  5,  neck;  0,  shoulder;  7,  breast;  8,  loin;  it,  riljs;  10,  fore  flank;  II, hind  Hank;  12, belly; 
1.3,  rump;  14,  ham;  lo, shank;  l(i,  pastern. 

The  joirl  lias  \cry  lillh'  iiiarkcl  \;iliic.  A  heavy  jowl 
denoles  a  teiidene;,  to  piil  on  too  iiiiich  fat.  (Jood  widlli  of 
jowl  is  desiraide  iVom  a  feeder's  st:iiid  |)niiit ,  lull  il  shoiiM  be 
\<rv   trim   and   neat. 

A  long,  serawny  ticrk  indie.afes  weak  eoiistitnlion  and  slow 
feeding  (|nalities.  ()ii  the  other  luiiid.  a  short,  thick  neck  with 
an  arch,  or  crest,  of  fat  on  top,  such  as  is  eominended  in  the 
fat  bog,  will  cause  the  side  of  bacon  to  be  lieavy  at  the  shoulder 
and  neck  end,  and  this  is  the  chea])  eiul  of  a  side  of  bacon. 
The  neck  should  be  of  only  niediiini  length,  and  >hould  possess 
no  tendency  1o  arch  on  top. 


TYPES  OF  SWINE  17 

Tho  shoiiJ<Jcr  of  llic  l);ic(Hi  \\(><j;  is  sniiicwlial.  npriiilit,  iiiiikiiii; 
llic  animal  ciiiiiiiaiMtivcly  .slioi't.  from  the  hack  <>(  the  slmulder 
to  the  snout,  but  long  from  the  back  of  the  shouhlei:  to  tlie  ruiiij). 
Tho  shouhlor  is  a  cheap  part,  and,  therefore,  shouhl  be  rather 
li2:ht.      It  shouhl  be  verA'  compact  over  the  top,  sliouhl  Ixi  no 


Fig.  7. — Rear  view  of  pig  of  bacon  type,  showing  the  neat,  smootli,  tapering  ham  desired 

in  the  bacon  hog. 

wider  than  the  back,  and  slunihl  l)lend  smootldy  into  the  Imdy 
at  all  points. 

The  had'  carries  the  most  valuable  meat,  but  it  slionld  not 
be  wide,  because  a  wide  back  iiixarialily  can'ies  too  much  fat 
for  a  Wiltshire  side.  It  should  jwssess  medium  width,  and 
should  carry  its  width  evenly  throughout.  The  top  line  should 
be  slightly  arched,  the  highest  point  being  over  the  loin. 

The  loin  is  the  most  valuable  cut  in  a  Wiltsliire  siilc,  and 
2 


18 


INTRODUCTORY 


should  bo  as  wide  as  tlio  rest  of  the  back,  full,  strong,  and 
well  packed  with  flesh. 

The  spring  of  rib  of  a  bacon  hog  is  verv  characteristic.  It 
should  spring  out  lx>ldly  from  the  backbone,  then  turn  sharidy 
and  drop  in  an  almost  vertical  direction,  giving  a  flat,  straight 
side. 

From  a  packer's  stand-point,  a  l)acon  hog  cannot  have  too 


Fia.  8. — This  youDg  sow  furnishpa  a  Kood  example  of  bacon  type. 

long  a  side,  l)nt  tlie  breeder  must  exercise  care  that  he  docs  not 
secure  this  extreme  length  at  the  expense  of  constitution.  It  is 
well  to  avoid  extremes  of  all  kinds.  It  is  absolutely  necessary, 
however,  that  the  hog  should  have  good  length  of  side,  mucli 
more  than  is  found  in  the  fat  type. 

The  mrnp  aifords  a  valuable  cut,  but  a  flat,  broad  rump 
indicates  the  presence  of  too  much  fat.  The  rump  should  be 
the  same  width  as  the  back,  should  Ix^  very  smooth,  and  sliglitly 
rounded  from  side  to  side  over  the  top. 


TYPES  OF  SWINE  19 

Great,  broad,  l)ulg:ing  hams  are  not  M-anted  on  the  bacon 
\io'j:.  Such  hams  ean-v  too  much  fat,  and  reqnirc  severe  trim- 
ming in  preparing  the  side  of  bacon  for  market.  The  ham 
of  the  bacon  hog  is  smooth  and  tirm,  and  tapers  toward  the 
hock.  (Figs.  7  and  8.)  The  flesh  shoukl  be  carried  well 
aronnd  the  bone,  leaving  no  bareness  of  bone  on  the  inside 
of  the  thigh. 

Bacon  Breeds. — The  leading  breeds  of  the  bacon  ty|X"  of 
swine  are  the  Tamworth,  and  Large  Yorkshire;  sometimes  the 
Hampshire  is  so  classified.  These  are  discussed  in  other 
chapters. 

SWIXE  OF  FAT.  OR  LAED,  TYPE. 

DESCRIPTION    AND    SCALE    OF    POINTS. 

A.     General  Appe-vrance: 

Counts. 

Size — Well  developed  for  age. 5 

Form — Deep,  thick,  smooth,  low  set,  good  length,  but  compactly 
built,  standing  on  well-placed  legs.  Top  line  straight,  or 
slightly  arching:  under  line,  straight:  belly,  trim  and  neat..      10 

Quality — Uair,  fine;  skin,  smooth,  showing  no  tendency  to 
wrinkle;  bone,  clean  and  fine;  fiesh,  smooth  and  mellow,  but 
showing  no  flabbiness    10 

Condition — Deeply  and  evenly  covered  with  flesh,  but  not  over- 
done for  the  purpose  for  which  the  animal  is  intended 0 

Style — Active  and  sprightly,  walking  without  a  swaying  move- 
ment, and  standing  well  up  on  toes.  Breeding  animals  sliould 
show  strong  character  •* 

n.     He.\d  and  N'eck: 

Snout — Moderat^^ly    fine    ■ 1 

Face — Broad  between  eyes:  poll,  broad  and  full 1 

Eyes — Good  size,  full,  and  bright 1 

Joicl — Full,  broad,  deep,  smooth,  and  firm,  carrying  fulness  back 

near  to  point  of  shoulder    

Ears — Medium  size.  fine,  and  soft   ' 

Xcck — Short,  thick,  and  deep.     Rounding  and   full    from    poll   to 

shoulder  top    


20  INTRODUCTORY 

C.  Fore  Quarters: 

tihouldcrs — Uruad  and  compact  on  top,  doop,  well  tloshod,  lilondin^' 

smootlily  witli  nock  and  body    fi 

Breast — Wide,  deep,  and   full    ?, 

Fore  Lcffs — Set  well  a])art.  short,  taperinp,  and  straight:  pasterns, 
upright;  bone,  clean  and  fine;  feet,  medium  size  and  strongly 
formed    .'? 

D.  Body : 

Ba^k — Hroad,  straight  or  very  slightly  arched,  medium  length, 
uniform   width    from   shoulder   to   ham,   thickly    lleshed.   even, 

and   smooth,  without  creases  or  projections S 

Loin — Broad,  strong,  full,  and  thickly  and  smootlily  lleshed f) 

Ribs — Long  and   well   sprung 4 

Side — Medium    length,   deep,   smootli.   even    between    shoulder   and 

ham     (i 

Heart  Girth — Large,  full  back  of  shoulder,  and  deep  and  full  at 

fore  flanks ;) 

Flank — Deep  and  full    2 

E.  Hind  Quarters: 

Rump — Same  width  as  back,  long,  smooth,  slightly  rounded  from 

loin  to  base  of  tail   4 

Ham — Broad,  deep,  heavily  lleshed,  plump,  and  reasonably  smooth; 

flesh  carried  well  down  to  hock  on  inside  as  well  as  at  rear.  .        8 

Hind  Legs — Short,  straiglit.  set  well  apart  and  scjuarely  under 
body;  bone,  fine  and  clean;  pasterns,  strong;  feet,  medium 
size  and  strongly  formed   ^ 

Total 101) 


SWINE  OF  BACON  TYPE. 
description  and  scale  ok  points. 
General  Appearance: 

Counts. 

Size — Well  developed  for  ago ;j 

Form — Long;  smooth,  all  parts  proportionately  developed  so  as  to 

give  the  impression  of  a  well-balanced,  strongly-built  animal. 

Top  line,  strong;  under  line,  straight;  belly,  trim  and  neat, ,     10 


TYPES  OF  SWINE  21 

(Jitdlity — Hair,  fiiK";  ^^kill,  smootli.  sliowiiij,'  no  tt-ndoiicy  to 
wrinkle;  bone,  clean  and  stronjr  Imt  not  eoarse ;  llesii,  firm 
and  smooth,  with  no  tlai)l)iness  at  jowl,  fore-Hank,  belly,  or 
liam    10 

Condition — Well    covered    with    firm    llesh.    especially    along    back 

and  loin,  but  not  heavily  loaded  with  fat <> 

glylf, — Active  and  sprightly,  walking  withoixt  a  swaying  move- 
ment, and  standing  well  up  on  toes.  Breeding  animals 
should  show  strong  character -^ 

B.  Head  and  Neck: 

Snout — ^Medium  length  and  moderately  fine 1 

Pace — Broad  between  eyes;  poll,  broad  and  full 1 

Eyes — Good  size,  full,  and  bright ' 

jQifj — Fair    width    and    muscular,    but    very    neat,    showing    no 

flabbiness    

£ars — Moderately  thin,  and  fringed  with  fine  hair 1 

A'ect— Medium  length  and  muscular,  but  possessing  no  tendency 

to  arch  on  top    

C.  Fore  Quarters: 

,S7iow?de»-s— Smooth,  somewhat  rounded  from  side  to  side  over 
top,  and  very  compact;  no  wider  than  back,  and  not  running 
back  on  side'  so  as  to  shorten  distance  between  shoulders  and 
ham    

Breast — Good  width  and  full 

Fore  Legs— Set  well  apart,  medium  length  and  straight;  pasterns, 
upright;  bone,  clean  and  strong;  feet,  medium  siie  and 
strongly   formed    

D.  Body : 

Bac/.— Medium  width,  rising 'slightly  above  the  straight  line,  and 

forming  a  ven'  slight  arch  from  neck  to  root  of  tail <> 

Loi«— Wide   as    rJst   of   back,    strong   and   full,   but   not   unduly 

5 
arched    • 

Ribs— Good  length  and  moderately  arched •  •  • 

;Stde-Fairlv  deep;   long,  smooth,  and  straight  between   shoulder 

and  ham;   a  straight-edge  laid  over  shoulder  point  and  ham       ^ 
should  touch  the  side  throughout 

Heart  Girth-FnW.  but  not  flabby  at  fore  flanks,  fille.l  out  even 

with  side  of  shoulder;   there  should  be  no  tucked-up  appear-       ^ 
ance  back  of  fore  legs  nor  droop  back  of  shoulder  top ■» 

Flank — Full  and  low   


22  INTRODUCTORY 

E.     Hind  Quarters: 

Ranrp — Samo  widtli  as  l)ack;  lonp  and  sljfrlitlv  rounded  from  a 
point  above  hips  to  tail,  and  somewhat  ronnded  from  side 
to  side  over  top    4 

Ham — Full  without  flabbiness;  thijjh,  tapering  towards  hock  witli- 
out  wrinkles  or  folds,  and  carrying  flesh  well  down  towards 
hock    (i 

Hind  Legs — Medium  lengtii ;  hocks,  set  well  apart,  liut  not  l)owed 
outward;  hone,  clean  and  strong:  pasterns,  upright:  feet, 
medium  size  and  strongly  formed 4 

Total 1(10 

RKVIKW. 

1.  Give  reasons  for  the  two  types  of  hogs. 

2.  Tell  where  each  is  most  commonly  found. 

3.  Describe  five  or  more  characteristics  of  the  fat  or  lard  type. 

4.  Give  five  or  more  characteristics  of  the  hacon  type  of  swine 

5.  Give  examples  of  breeds  of  the  fat  type. 

6.  Give  examples  of  breeds  of  the  bacon  type. 


PART  II 

PRINCIPLES  OF  SWIXE  BREEDING 


CHAPTER  III. 
BREEDING  AND   SELECTION. 

The  Breeder. — The  business  of  the  stock-breeder  is  a 
peculiar  one.  He  has  to  deal  with  life,  and  all  those  mys- 
terious possibilities  that  exist  in  the  living  creature  have  to 
be  reckoned  with  in  his  operations.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  fixed 
rules.  Xo  man  can  ma})  out  a  system  which  will  apply  to  all 
cases  and  give  a  definite  result  with  absolute  a'rtainty.  The 
successful  breeder  requires  a  thorough  knowledge  of  his  busi- 
ness and  the  ability  to  reason  accurately,  so  that  he  may  modify 
his  methods  and  adapt  them  to  the  reipiirements  of  each  in- 
dividual problem  which  comes  before  him.  Knowledge  of 
general  principles  can  be  acquired  from  books,  but  the  success- 
ful application  of  those  princii^les  must  be  learned,  very  largely, 
in  the  school  of  experience. 

Theory  and  practice  must  go  hand  in  hand,  and  knowledge 
must  be  combined  with  reason;  but  the  really  great  breeder 
seems  to  possess  a  sort  of  intuitive  genius  given  to  the  very 
few,  and  hence  great  breeders  are  not  common. 

Another  thing  necessary  to  success  is  a  love  for  animals. 
If  a  man  dislikes  hogs,  he  had  better  not  attempt  to  bre^d 
them,  because  failure  is  sure  to  follow.  It  is  the  enthusiastic 
lover  of  a  breed  of  animals  who  Avill  make  the  gn^atest  success 
of  breeding  them. 

Finally,  there  can  be  no  progress  unless  the  breeder  has  a 
very  clear  ideal  before  him  towards  which  he  is  working,  which 
implies,  of  course,  that  he  must  be  a  thorough  judge  of  tlie 
breed  he  handles.  He  may  never  reach  his  ideal,  but  he 
must  never  lose  sight  of  it.     Xo  matter  how  much  money  may 

(25) 


26  PRINCIPLES  OF  SWINE  BREEDING 

be  invcstod  in  the  enteiprise,  it  will  amount  to  notliing  unless 
the  breeder  has  a  clearly  defined  object  in  view. 

He  will  meet  with  many  tilings  to  try  his  faitli,  but  he 
must  not  waver;  he  will  be  frequently  cast  down,  but  he  must 
not  despair.  Difficulties,  disappointments,  and  hope  deferred 
are  part  of  the  heritage  of  the  breeder,  and  he  requires  the 
highest  class  of  courage  to  be  able  to  *'  stick  to  his  gnns  "  and 
eventually  bring  victory  out  of  what  appeared  to  be  certain 
defeat. 

There  is  no  royal  road  to  success  as  a  breeder,  and,  while 
there  may  be  few  who  attain  to  greatness,  there  is  no  reason 
why  any  man  should  not  attain  a  reasonable  degree  of  success 
in  breeding  swine,  providing  he  possesses  a  liking  for  these 
animals  and  a  determination  to  conquer  the  difficulties  incident 
to  the  undertaking. 

Utility. — Every  breeder  should  ask  himself  why  he  is 
breeding  the  animals  of  his  choice.  Is  it  to  humor  the  whims 
(tf  the  few  or  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  many  ?  If  his  work 
as  a  breeder  is  t<3  be  a  success,  he  must  never  lose  sight  of  the 
requirements  of  the  man  who  produces  tlie  market  hog  for 
the  money  that  is  in  it.  i^o  matter  how  pure  the  blood  or  how 
perfect  the  type  from  the  breeder's  stand-point,  if  the  hog 
does  not  meet  the  requirements  of  the  packer,  if  it  is  not  suited 
to  paying  the  rent  and  lifting  the  mortgage  when  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  average  farmer,  then  all  the  effort  employed 
in  its  production  has  been  wasted.  The  watchword  of  the 
truly  successful  breeder  must  be  utility.  Utility  is  the  touch- 
stone upon  which  each  breeder's  work  will  l)e  tested.  If  his 
work  stands  the  test  it  will  surely  meet  with  recognition,  but 
if  it  fails  in  the  test  it  will  ultimately  disappear  and  be  for- 
gotten. Every  step  in  the  breeder's  operations  must  be  dom- 
inated bv  this  one  great  consideration,  and   if  he  ever  loseg 


BREEDING  AND  SELECTION  27 

sight  of  the  importance  of  utility,  he  need  never  hope  to  achieve 
lasting  distinction  as  a  breeder. 

Utility  must  ho  viewed  from  two  stand-points:  (1)  The 
butcher  requires  an  animal  that  will  give  him  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  valuable  meat,  and  (2)  the  farmer  requires  an 
aninuil  that  will  reproduce  its  kind  in  profitable  numbers  and 
make  rapid  and  economical  gains.  There  would  be  little  use 
in  aiming  to  please  the  butcher  if  the  animal  did  not  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  farmer,  but  tlie  butcher  must  not  be  left 
out  of  consideration  if  a  really  useful  animal  is  to  be  produced. 
In  breeding  operations,  therefore,  both  these  men  must  be  kept 
in  view,  and  the  breeding,  feeding,  and  killing  qualities  must 
each  receive  a  due  share  of  attention. 

In-breeding. — It  is  not  intended  to  attempt  a  general  dis- 
cussion of  the  principles  of  breeding;  but  the  question  of  in- 
breeding— that  is,  the  mating  of  animals  that  are  closely  related 
— is  of  such  importance  that  it  is  deserving  of  some  notice  in 
a  publication  dealing  with  swine  husbandly. 

Advice  of  a  Breeder. — That  very  successful  Berkshire 
breeder,  X.  II.  Gentry,  read  a  paper  before  the  American 
Swine  Breeders'  Association,  in  which  he  gave  his  experience 
with  in-breeding  of  Berkshires.  His  experience  extends  over  a 
considerable  number  of  years,  and  the  following  statement  is 
taken  from  his  paper: 

"  Xeither  in-breeding  nor  the  reverse  will  be  a  success  un- 
less matings  are  made  with  animals  suited  to  each  other, — 
that  is,  having  no  weakness  in  common  if  possible,  and  as 
much  good  in  common  as  possible.  This,  in  my  opinion,  is 
the  key  to  success  in  all  breeding  operations,  and  success  will 
come  in  no  other  way.  In  my  opinion,  in-breeding,  as  a  rule,  is 
very  good  or  very  bad.  If  you  intensify  the  blood  of  animals 
that  are  good,  you  do  good,  but  if  they  are  bad,  you  go  wrong 


28  PRINCIPLES  OF  SWINE  BREEDING 

as  fast  (»r  f'asttT  tliaii  V(»u  <::()  riii:lit  in  the  nihcr  case.  If  it  is 
true  lli;il  iii-hi'ccdiiiii-  iiitcnsiiics  weakness  of  constitution,  lack 
of  vigor,  or  t-oo  great  iinoncss  of  bone,  as  we  all  believe,  is  it 
not  as  reasonable  and  as  wrtiiin  that  you  can  intensify  strength 
of  constitution,  heavy  bone,  or  vigor,  if  you  have  those  traits 
well  developed  in  the  blnod  of  the  animals  yon  are  in-breeding 
with?  The  latter  is  certainly  my  belief  and  experience.  .  .  . 
I  believe  there  is  little  or  nothing  to  fear  from  kinship  of 
animals  mated  if  they  are  suited  to  be  luatod  together." 

]\Ir.  G(Mitry  states  that  he  has  not  used  a  boar  other  than 
his  own  breeding  for  twenty  years,  and  describes  the  good 
results  from  using  the  great  boar  Longfellow  16,!S35,  and 
Longfellow's  sons  and  gTandsons  in  his  herd.  One  instance 
is  a  boar  he  showed  at  the  World's  Fair  in  Chicago  in  1893. 
This  boar  weighed  (iOO  pounds  at  13  months  and  0  days  of 
age,  and  possessed  as  much  aeti(»ii.  strength,  vigor,  and  mas- 
culine development  as  any  boar  he  ever  saw.  The  sire  of 
this  boar  was  a  son  of  Longfellow,  the  dam  was  a  daughter  of 
Longfellow,  and  the  sii-e  of  the  dam  was  by  the  sire  of  Long- 
fellow. Ihis  is  an  example  of  very  i-lose  iu-breedjng  i»ro<lu('ing 
remai'kably  good  results. 

J'rominciil  siiuiif  hrccdrrs  resort  to  iu-breediiig  at  times.  .V 
very  successftd  bi-eeder  told  the  wi'iler  that  he  diij  not  care  to 
])ractise  very  close  breeding  as  a  nilc  Imt  he  would  not  hesitate 
to  mate  aninuds  as  (dosely  relah'd  as  cousins.  Mr.  (lentrv 
states  that  at  first  he  j)ractised  in-bree<ling  through  necessity, 
not  being  able  to  (iud  boars  outside  his  own  luu'd  which  he 
thought  suitable  for  his  use.  Xo  doubt  many  a  breeder  has 
found  himself  in  a  similar  ]iosition  at  times,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  a  certain  amount  of  in-breeding  would  be  preferable 
to  using  uni-elated  males  which  were  of  infcu-ior  quality. 

71ir  history  of  animal  hrceding  shows  that  in-luveding  has 


BREEDING  AND  SELECTION  29 

played  tm  iinportaiit  part  in  the  iiiiprovoniont  of  ])ractically 
all  breeds  of  live  stook.  It  concentrates  the  blood  and  makes 
animals  more  prepotent, — that  is  to  say,  causes  thciii  to  trans- 
mit their  own  qualities  to  their  progeny  witli  great  certainty, 
lu  this  respect,  therefore,  in-breeding  is  beneficial ;  but  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  it  will  fix  bad  qualities  as  well  as  grwd 
ones.  Mr.  Gentrv^  strikes  the  keynote  avIkii  he  says:  "T  be- 
lieve there  is  little  or  notliing  to  fear  from  kinshij)  of  animals 
mated  if  they  are  suited  to  l>e  united  together."  lint  how 
many  men  are  capable  of  discerning  whether  the  animals  are 
suited  to  one  another  or  not?  Mr.  Gentry  states  that  if  the 
animals  are  bad,  a  person  will  go  wrong  very  fast  by  practising 
in-breeding.  The  chances  are  that  more  than  ninety-nine  \u  r 
cent  of  the  men  breeding  swine  to-day  could  not  say  with 
any  degree  of  certainty  whether  a  given  pair  of  animals  were 
suited  to  be  mated  together,  and  since  bad  results  are  likely  to 
follow  an  error  in  judgment,  it  seems  safe  to  assume  that 
in-breeding  is  something  to  he  practised  by  the  few  only. 

It  requires  a  master  of  the  art  of  breeding  to  practise  in- 
Itretding  with  success,  and  in  the  history  of  stock  breeding  we 
read  oi  some  of  the  gi'eatest  breeders  the  world  has  known 
who  were  compelled  to  resort  to  the  introduction  of  fresh  blood 
after  persistently  following  in-breeding  for  a  considerable  time. 

Avoid  In-breeding. — It  will  be  safer,  therefore,  for  the 
average  breeder  to  avoid  in-breeding,  and  to  leave  the  practice 
in  the  hands  of  those  who  are  exceptionally  skilful  in  the  art 
of  breeding.  If  a  breeder  happened  to  secure  a  boar  of  ex- 
ceptional excellence  as  a  stock  getter,  he  might  find  it  t<>  his 
advantage  to  do  a  certain  amount  of  close  breeding,  but  l)oars 
of  this  description  are  not  numerous,  and  it  is  seldom  that  we 
are  fortunate  enough  to  secure  one.  'SVv.  Gentry  secured  such 
a  boar  in  Longfellow,  and  recognized  the  boar's  merit,  but 


30  PRINCIPLES  OF  SWINE  BREEDING 

Longfollows  are  scarce,  We  might  think  we  had  a  second 
Longfellow,  but  an  att<?mpt  to  concentrate  his  blood  by  in- 
breeding might  prove  the  utter  ruin  of  tlio  herd,  because  the 
lx)ar  might  possess  weaknesses  which  did  not  Ixcome  apparent 
until  his  ]u*«>ireny  were  inbred. 

Cross-breeding  means  the  mating  of  animals  belonging  to 
different  breeds,  and  inijdies  that  both  male  and  feuuUc  are 
pure-bred.  Though  a  good  deal  of  cross-breeding  is  practised, 
very  little  systematic  work  has  been  done  in  the  way  of 
studying  the  relative  merits  of  pure-bred  and  cross-bred  hogs, 
and  little  in  the  best  way  of  crossing  to  obtain  a  given  result. 

Some  work  in  cross-breeding  at  the  Ontario  Agi'icultural 
College  gave  indefinite  results,  so  far  as  cheapness  or  rapiditv 
of  gain  was  concerned.  There  was  nothing  to  indicate  that 
one  method  of  crossing  necessarily  gave  better  results  than 
another,  or  that  cross-bred  pigs  were  necessarily  bettci-  than 
pu  re-bred  s. 

J.  II.  Grisdale,  Central  Experimental  Fann,  Canada, 
reports  cheaper  gains  from  cross-breds  than  from  pure-breds, 
but  lie  failed  to  find  that  any  one  method  of  crossing  was 
superior  to  another,  so  far  as  his  work  went. 

The  writer's  experience  leads  him  to  Ixdieve  that  the  progeny 
of  animals  which  have  become  too  fine  and  lack  growth  and 
thrift  can  be  much  inii)ruvod  as  ju-ofitablc  feeders  bv  the 
introduction  of  the  blood  of  a  moiv  growthy  and  hoavier- 
l)oned  type;  or  that  animals  that  are  coarse-lx>ned.  or  slow 
feeders,  can  be  improved  by  using  the  blood  of  a  finer  tvpe. 
Frequently,  however,  this  result  can  1k'  attained  without  resort- 
ing to  cross-breeding,  by  selecting  types  within  the  same  breed. 
In  the  case  of  thrifty,  rugged  pure-breds.  which  are  of  a 
typo  which  meets  the  requirements  of  the  feeder,  it  is  difficult 
to  see  how  any  advantage  is  to  be  derived  from  cross-breeding. 


BREEDING  AND  SELECTION  31 

In  mating  extreme  types,  it  is  probably  safer  to  use  a 
roomy,  growthy  type  of  female,  because  such  sows  are  gen- 
erally moi-e  prolific  and  better  mothers  than  a  very  tine,  com- 
pact type  of  sow.  The  roomy  sow,  mated  with  a  compact  typo 
of  boar,  will  generally  prove  more  profitable  than  a  fine  sow 
mated  with  a  coai*se  boar.  The  progeny  will  be  similar  in 
both  cases,  but  are  likely  to  be  more  numerous  and  better 
nourished  from  the  roomy  type  of  sow.  In  these  matters, 
however,  a  man  must  work  according  to  the  material  he  has 
at  hand,  and  he  may  find  it  necessary"  to  cross  in  the  opposite 
way  from  that  recommended  here.     (See  Fig.  9.) 

Grade  Breeding. — A  grade  animal  may  be  defined  as  one 
whose  parents  are  not  both  pure-bred.  One  parent  may  bo  a 
pure-bred  and  the  other  not,  or  neither  parent  may  be  a  pure- 
bred. Generally  speaking,  the  more  ''  crosses  "  of  pure  blood 
an  animal  possesses,  the  better  animal  it  is.  There  are  grades 
which  carry  so  many  "  crosses  "  of  pure  blood  that  they  are 
essentially  pure-breds  in  everytliing  but  name.  For  producing 
mark(t  hogs — that  is,  hogs  for  fattening  purposes — a  good 
grade  sow  may  answer  just  as  well  as  a  pure-bred,  provided 
she  is  mated  with  a  good  boar.  A  large  proportion  of  market 
hog>^  are  ])rodiie('d  in  tliis  way. 

Pedigree  and  Heredity. — A  good  many  people  are  inclined 
to  look  upon  pedigree  as  something  distinct  from  utility.  Noth- 
ing could  be  further  from  the  truth.  The  question  is  frequently 
asked,  "  Which  is  of  greater  impoitance,  individuality  or 
pedigree  ?  "  The  question  does  not  admit  of  a  definite  answer, 
for  neither  is  complete  ^vithout  the  other;  that  is  to  say,  the 
desirable  breeding  animal  should  possess  individual  merit  as 
well  as  a  good  pedigree. 

The  reason  we  value  pedigree  is  because  we  believe  in 
heredity.     The  pedigree  tells  us  the  names  of  the  ancestors 


32 


principi.es  of  swine  breeding 


5-'    a 
I  Q 


BREEDING  AND  SELECTION  33 

of  tlie  animal  in  question,  and  we  believe  that  the  ancestors 
of  an  individual  have  an  influence  in  detcnnining  the  char- 
acter of  the  i)rogeny  of  the  individual.  Therefore,  if  we  tiud 
in  the  pedigree  of  a  certain  animal  the  names  of  a  considerable 
number  of  animals  known  to  possess  a  hiiih  degree  of  merit, 
and  if  tlie  animal  under  consideration  is  a  reasonably  gotid 
representative  of  the  bned,  we  would  feel  fairly  safe  in  breed- 
ing from  such  an  individual.  We  would  say  that  such  an 
aninnil  had  a  good  pedigree,  because  it  csnnes  of  a  good  line 
of  ancestors.  If,  however,  we  found  an  animal  that  was  quite 
satisfactory  as  an  individual,  but  tlie  pedigree  showed  us  names 
of  ancestors  which  we  knew  possessed  very  undesirable  qual- 
ities, we  would  hesitate  to  select  such  an  animal  to  put  into 
our  herd,  especially  if  it  were  a  boar,  because  we  would  be 
afraid  that  some  of  those  undesirable  qualities  might  crop  out 
in  the  progeny  and  be  spread  throughout  the  whole  herd. 
We  might  even  go  so  far  as  to  select  a  boar  not  quite  equal  as 
an  individual  to  the  one  just  described,  but  possessing  a  good 

t pedigree. 
-^  It  would  not  bo  advisable,  however,  to  breed  from  a  really 
bad  individual  merely  Ijecause  he  had  a  good  pedigree,  bwause 
there  are  many  animals  with  good  pedigrees  which  should 
never  be  used  for  breeding.  It  is  just  here  that  exi^erience 
is  necessary  to  enable  a  breeder  to  hold  the  balance  properlv 
between  individmdity  and  pedigree. 

It  may  be  added  that  a  tabulated  pedigree  means  nothing 
to  the  man  who  does  not  know  anything  about  the  animals 
whose  names  appear  therein,  and  the  man  who  would  become 
a  breeder  must  make  it  his  business  to  familiarize  himself 
with  tlie  great  sires  and  families  which  have  attained  to 
eminence  in  the  breed  he  is  handling.  It  must  be  remembered, 
also,  that  the  immediate  ancestors,  such  as  the  sire,  dam,  grand- 

3 


34  PRINCIPLES  OF  SWINE  BREEDING 

sire,  and  graiuldain,  are  likely  to  have  a  greater  influence  for 
good  or  evil  than  more  renioto  ancestors,  and,  therefore,  the 
first  two  or  tliree  generations — or,  in  other  words,  the  top  crosses 
— should  receive  si)ecial  attention  in  studying  a  pedigree.  The 
more  remote  the  ancestor,  the  less  important  is  its  influence 
likely  to  be. 

Selection  of  the  Boar. — In  these  days,  when  pure-bred 
males  are  plentiful  and  reasonable  in  price,  there  is  practically 
no  excuse  for  using  anything  but  a  pure-bred  boar,  even  though 
the  sows  may  be  merely  grades.  The  pure-bred  male  will 
transmit  his  own  qualities  to  his  progeny  with  greater  certainty 
than  a  grade  or  cross-bred,  and  will  get  pigs  of  more  uniform 
quality  and  excellence,  so  that  it  pays  to  use  a  ])urehred  boar 
even  for  producing  market  hog's.  It  is  true  that  many  pure- 
bred boars  should  not  l^e  used  for  breeding,  but  this  affords  no 
reason  for  using  a  grade  boar.  The  ''sci'iib  "  pure-bred  should 
be  rejected  along  with  the  grade  and  the  cross-bred,  and  therv 
are  reasonably  good  pure-bred  lx)ars  always  available  to  the 
man  who  will  make  an  effort  to  get  one. 

Price  and  Merit. — When  selecting  a  boar  to  head  a  pure- 
bred herd,  it  ^\nll  not  do  to  be  too  economical  regarding  price. 
This  does  not  mean  that  we  are  to  pay  fancy  prices,  running 
into  the  thousands,  such  as  we  sometimes  read  about ;  but  it  is 
well  to  bear  in  mind  that  a  boar  which  is  not  good  enough  to 
command  a  fair  price  is  seldom  good  enough  to  put  at  tlie  head 
of  a  pure-bred  herd.  The  importance  of  the  herd  will  de- 
termine the  price  which  tlie  owmer  can  afford  to  pay  for  a 
boar,  but  a  few  extra  dollars  on  the  price  of  a  boar  is  a  small 
matter  when  it  is  the  means  of  securing  something  tliat  the 
breeder  really  needs.  The  mere  size  of  the  price,  however, 
is  not  a  safe  criterion  of  the  merit  of  the  boar,  but  it  refrts 
with  the  man  \vho  makes  the  selection  to  see  that  he  gets  value 


BREEDING  AND  SELECTION 


35 


for  his  money.  It  is  right  liere  that  a  wide  experience  and 
a  seasoned  judgment  connt  for  so  much  in  stock  breeding. 
Sometimes  aged  boars,  which  have  proved  their  exceHence  as 
stock  getters,  are  to  be  had  at  a  very  reasonable  price,  and  if 
tliey  are  still  active,  they  are  much  safer  to  buy  than  young, 
untried  boars.     There  is  much  unreasonable  prejudice  against 


Fig.   10. — Chester  White  boar,  w-inner  of  sweepstake.*  at  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exi>osition. 


aged  boars,  and  many  an  excellent  aged  boar  is  sent  to  the 
butcher  long  before  his  usefulness  is  past,  merely  because  no 
person  would  buy  him  for  breeding  purposes ;  and  young  boars, 
many  of  which  should  have  gone  to  the  butcher  before  being 
used  at  all,  are  taken  in  preference.  These  things  are  matters 
of  judgment,  and  to  select  wisely  tlie  breeder  must  hno7V  what 
he  requires. 


36  PRINCIPLES  OF  SWINE  BREEDING 

The  desirable  cohfurmaliun  of  tlio  boar  will  dcpciul  upon 
whether  ho  behnijjs  to  the  fat  type  (  Fii;.  10).  «>r  the  hacon 
type  (Fig.  11),  and  will  also  l>i'  iiilhu'iiccd,  more  or  less,  by 
the  breed  to  wliicli  lie  belongs.  The  general  tyjie  of  the  fat 
hog  and  tlie  bacon  ln»g  is  discussed  in  another  jdaee,  but  it 
may  be  said  that  we  expect  a  boar  to  be  stronger  in  tlie  liead 


I'm.  11.— I.,arne  Vork.sliiro  Ixiiii,  ii  winni  i  at  I  hi-  l^iiRli^h  Uu\  :il  .-^liow.  Xolc  iho 
Icnuth,  the  smoothness,  the  strong  top-line,  un»l  the  trim  bcllj'.  Also  note  the  strong, 
clean-cut  bone 

and  to  possess  a  more  mnscular  neck,  more  massive  shonlders, 
and  heavier  bone,  tlian  a  sow  or  l)arrow.  lie  shonhl  conform 
to  the  best  type  of  the  breed  to  which  lu^  l)ehings,  and  shoidd 
have  a  l)ohl,  impressive  carriage  and  general  appearance.  There 
slioidd  bo  nothing  effeminatt^  abont  his  a])i)earance  and  gtMieral 
make-up.     Coarseness  and  roughness  are  not  desirable,  but  if 


BREEDING  AND  SELECTION 


37 


it  cnnu'  to  a  choice  iK'twocii  two  hoars,  (nic  of  which  was  iiiio 
and  etTcniinatc,  and  the  other  iiicliiiini^  to  ooarsonoss  hut 
stroiiii'lv  niascnlino,  the  writer's  e.\])erieii('e  wouhl  lead  him 
to  choose  the  latter,  other  thiuii's  beinj:;  e(iual. 

Selection  of  the  Sow. — For  the  production  of  uuirket  bogs 
it  is  not  essential  that  a  sow  should  be  pure-hred.     A  crrade 


Fig.  12. — An  excellent  type  of  breeding  sow.  She  po.s.^ossp.')  Icnfrth,  depili,  smooth- 
ness, and  quality.  The  head  shows  strength  and  dooility,  and  is  truly  feminine.  The  wi-ll- 
developed  and  well  placed  teats  denote  prolificacy  and  good  milking  qualities. 


SOW  of  good  type  and  parentage  will  usually  produce  very 
satisfactory'  pigs  for  market  purposes,  if  mated  with  a  boar 
of  good  breeding  and  quality,  but,  of  course,  none  of  her  Ixiar 
pigs   should  be  kept  for  breeding  purposes. 

Wliether  j)ure-bred  or  grade,  a  sow  selected  for  breeding 
should  be  from  a  prolific  mother,  and  by  a  boar  tliat  comes 


38  PRINCIPLES  OF  SWINE  BREEDING 

of  a  prolific  faiiiilv,  because  fecundity  is  hereditars-  to  a  very 
high  deorec.  It  is  safest  to  select  a  sow  from  a  matured  mother 
who  has  had  a  chance  to  demonstrate  her  usefulness.  In  mak- 
ing a  selection,  the  number  and  character  of  the  teats  should 
be  noted.  A  sow  is  more  likely  to  make  a  good  mother  if  she 
has  at  least  twelve  well-developed  teats,  set  well  apart,  and  th<' 
front  ones  well  forward  on  the  body.    (Figs.  9  and  12.) 

In  character,  the  sow  is  directly  tlie  opposite  of  the  boar, 
and  there  is  a  femininity  about  her  general  appearance  and 
bearing  whicli   indicates  the  prolific  and  indulgent  mother. 

When  a  really  good  sow  is  once  obtained,  she  should  be 
kept  in  the  herd  as  long  as  she  retains  her  usefulness.  A 
n  ally  first-class  sow  is  not  too  easily  obtained,  and  when  once 
a('(|iiir('(I  it  will  bp  found  the  part  of  wisdom  to  keep  her  as 
long  as  she  continues  to  produce  satisfactory  litters. 

RKVIKW. 

1.  Tell  of  tlic  c-oniplcxitics  of  tlio  I)roi'(l(>r's  Ijiisincss. 

2.  Toll  of  tlio  rcquiii-mcnts  for  a  fuinifr  to  he  a  pood  swine  breeder. 

3.  Tell  of  tlie  need  oi  liis  keeping  tlie  element  of  utility  in  his  mind. 

4.  Give  two  view-points  for  considerinn;  utility. 

5.  What  i.s  meant  hy  "  in-hreeding  "? 

6.  Give  Mr.  Gentry's  adviee   regarding   it. 

7.  What  is  the  practice  of  prominent  swine  breeders  regarding  it? 

8.  What  is  the  safe  rule  for  the  farmer  to  follow  regarding  in-breeding? 
0.  What  is  cross-breeding?    Give  some  of  its  uses. 

10.  Gives  suggestions  to  follow  in  mating  extreme  types. 

11.  Define  "grades."  "'high-grades."     To  what  extent  are  they  used? 

12.  Tell  of  the   importance  of  pedigree  and  heredity   in  swine  breeding. 
1.3.  Why   select  a   pure-bred  boar?     Why   do   it   well? 

14.  Tell  of  the  desirable  conformation  of  tiie  l)oar. 

15.  Tell  of  the  desirable  conformation  of  brood  sows. 


PART  III 

BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


CHAPTER  IV. 
RELATION  OF  BREED  TO  ECONOMY  OF  PRODUCTION. 

Probably  tlie  most  extensive  tests  with  breeds  of  swine 
have  been  conducted  by  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  and 
the  Iowa  State  Experiment  Station.  At  tlie  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College  live  tests  were  conducted  in  which  six  l)r('iMls  of 
swine  were  compared  as  to  the  aniomit  of  feed  ictiuircd  f<>r 
100  pounds  gain  live  weight.  At  the  Iowa  Expcrinicnt  Station 
three  tests  were  made  in  which  the  same  six  bi-ceds  were  com- 
pared as  to  the  amount  of  feed  required  for  100  pounds  gain 
live  weight.  The  results  of  these  two  series  of  tests  are,  there- 
fore, of  considerable  importance.  In  the  Ontario  tests,  only 
the  meal  is  considered  in  four  of  the  tests,  such  feeds  as  dairy 
by-products  and  green  feed,  which  were  the  same  for  all  breeds, 
being  omitted.  In  one  test  the  results  are  given  in  terms  of 
dry  matter. 

Ontario  Feeding  Trials. — Following  are  the  results  of  the 

Ontario  tests: 

Meal  Consumed  Per  100  Pounds  Gain  in  Weight. 

1st  Test. 
Pounds.  Pounds. 

Berkshire    3J)8  Duroc-Jersey    424 

Tamworth     400  Chester    White    4.52 

Poland-China     417  Yorksliire    468 

2d  Test. 
Pounds.  Pounds. 

Berkshire    327  Chester   White  340 

Tamworth     331  Yorkshire    341 

Poland-China     333  Duroc-Jersey    358 

(41) 


42  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

3d  Test. 
Pounds.  Pounds. 

Yorkshire   350  Chester  Wliite  . :ilH 

Berkshire    370  Tamwortli     378 

Dirroc-Jersey    376  Poland-China   383 

'ith    Test    (Dr;/   Matter). 

Pounds.  Pounds. 

Berkshire    318  Chester    White    337 

Tamwortli    331  Durot-.Ierscy    337 

Yorkshire    335  Poland-Cliina    350 

.;tli   Ti'ftt. 

Pounds.  Pounds. 

Berkshire    409  Chester  White 433 

Yorkshire    422  Tamwortli    462 

Duroc-Jersey    426  Poland-China   474 

Before  any  comment  is  made  on  the  Ontario  results,  we 
Avill  look  at  the  Iowa  results,  which  are  based  upon  drv  matter. 

Iowa  Feeding  Trials. — Following  are  the  results  of  the 
Iowa  tests: 

Pou.xDS  Dry  Matter  Consimed  Pf.u   loo  Poi-nd.s  G.\i\  in  Weight. 

1st  Test. 
Pounds.  Pounds. 

Duroc-Jersey    386  Poland-Ctiina 424 

Yorkshire    398  Chester  White   460 

Tamworth    403  Berkshire    462 

2d  Te.1t. 

Pounds.  Pounds. 

Dii roe-Jersey    337  Poland-China    392 

Yorkshire    365  Chester    White    .394 

Berkshire    381  Tamworth    407 

3d  Test. 

Pounds.  Pounds. 

Poland-China 441  Chester  White  506 

Berkshire    481  Duroc-Jer.sey    506 

Yorkshire   505  Tamworth    558 


ECONOMY  OF  PRODUCTION  43 

These  results  suggest  some  difficult  questions.  Why,  for 
instance,  do  Berksliires,  Yorkshires,  Duroc-Jcrseys,  and  Poland- 
Chinas  range  all  the  way  from  the  top  to  the  hottoni  of  the 
list  in  the  different  tests;  ami  why  would  an  average  of  the 
Ontario  tests  give  a  rating  of  the  breeds  which  is  entirely 
different  from  an  average  of  the  Iowa  tests  ?  The  averages 
have  Ix^eu  purposely  omitted,  because  they  are  entirely  mis- 
leading in  a  case  of  this  kind.  For  example,  one  breed  may 
suffer  from  some  unfavorable  circumstance  in  one  or  more  of 
the  tests  which  is  in  no  way  related  to  or  influenced  by  the 
breeding  of  the  animals,  yet  this  circumstance  may  seriously 
affect  the  standing  of  the  breed  in  question. 

Eliminating  averages  and  looking  over  the  individual  tests 
with  an  imprejudiced  mind,  we  can  scarcely  escape  the  con- 
clusion that  the  factor  which  placed  a  certain  group  at  the 
top  in  any  of  the  tests  was  in  no  way  related  to  the  breed 
represented  by  that  group. 

This  point  is  further  emphasized  by  a  test  reported  by 
Professor  Bums  in  Texas  Bulletin  131.  In  this  test  "  razor 
backs  "  or  scrubs  were  fed  against  good  average  Poland-China 
grades.  The  Poland-China  grades  made  more  rapid  gains  and 
sold  for  a  higher  price  per  pound,  but  the  cost  of  producing 
100  pounds  of  gain  was  practically  the  same  for  both,  being 
approximately  $6.02  for  the  scnibs  and  $5.94  for  the  grades, 
a  difference  of  two  twenty-fifths  of  a  cent  per  pound. 

A  Trial  with  One  Breed. — If  any  person  wishes  to  test  the 
question  further,  let  him  take  S  or  10  pigs  of  the  same  litter, 
divide  them  into  two  groups  as  nearly  even  as  possible,  and 
feed  the  two  groups  exactly  the  same.  The  question  of  breed 
cannot  enter  into  such  a  comparison,  but  in  almost  any  sucli 
test  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  a  difference  in  the  amount  of 
feed  required  for  100  pounds  gain  in  the  two  groups. 


44  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

Bacon  and  Fat  Types  Compared.- — Another  iiiU'rcsting 
point  brought  out  in  those  breed  tests  is  the  fact  that  the  bacon 
type  is  al)le  to  hold  its  owii  ;iii,iiinsl  the  bird  tvix-  in  {'coiioniv 
of  i^rodnction.  Take  the  two  bacon  breeds,  Yorkshire  and 
Tamwortli.  in  the  Ontario  tests  and  compare  their  stantling 
with  such  breeds  as  the  Poland-China,  Chester  White,  ajul 
I) u roc- Jersey;  or  take  the  Yorksliirc  in  tlie  Iowa  tests  antl 
compare  it  witli  the  other  breeds.  So  far  as  breed  tests  go, 
therefore,  tliev  fail  to  demonstrate  that  it  costs  any  more  to 
put  a  pound  of  gain  on  a  hog  of  bacon  type  than  it  (b»es  1o 
put  a  pound  of  gain  on  a  hog  of  bird  type. 

Conclusion. — lined  tests,  therefore,  have  serA-ed  a  useful 
purpose  in  demonstrating  that  no  one  breed  is  su]>erior  to  all 
other  breeds  in  ability  to  make  cheap  gains.  A  healthy,  thrifty 
hog  will  make  economical  gains  no  matter  what  breed  it 
represents. 

REVTFW. 

1.  Wliat  kinds  of  tests  have  l)ri'n  luadi!  to  dctcrmim-  tiie  best  brtvds 
for  feeding? 

2.  Wliat  t)rceds  have  boon  used  in  these  feeding  trials? 

.3.  Wtiieh  breeds  were  ahead  in  tlie  live  Ontario  tests?  Wliidi  wen- 
poorest? 

4.  Wliieh   were  aliead    in  tlie    lowa  tests?     Wliich   fell   behind? 

5.  What  would  he  the  probable  nsult  in  :i  fe.-diuir  trial  with  several 
individuals  of  the  same  breed? 

0.  How  do  the  bac(»n  breeds  roniinire  with  the  lard  breeds  in  these 
tests? 

7.  WTiat   is  the  conelusion   regarding  these  breed  testa? 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  BERKSHIRE  BREED. 

Description. — The  Berkshire  is  an  attractive  animal  in 
appearance,  and  is  rather  above  medium  size,  though,  as  a 
breed,  it  scarcely  equals  the  Yorkshire  and  Tamworth  in  size. 
The  face  is  moderately  dished,  the  snout  medium  in  length, 
the  jowl  full  and  rather  heavy,  and  the  neck  short,  with  con- 
siderable crest.  The  cars  should  be  firndy  attached  to  the  head, 
and  are  usually  erect,  though  they  frequently  incline  forward 
in  aged  animals.  The  breed  generally  has  good  width  of 
shoulder,  a  broad  back  resulting  from  a  well-spning  rib,  and 
good  thickness  through  the  rump  and  hams.  The  Berkshire 
is  noted  for  a  thickly  meated,  trim  ham.  In  general,  it  has 
good  depth  of  body;  and  should  possess  a  deep,  wide  chest, 
with  a  full  heart-girth.  In  tlie  best  representatives  of  the 
breed,  the  bone  is  all  that  could  be  desired,  being  strong  and 
clean,  and  the  animal  generally  stands  well  on  its  feet. 

The  standard  color  is  l)lack,  with  white  markings  in  the 
face,  on  each  foot,  and  on  the  tip  of  the  tail.  (Figs.  13,  14,  15.) 
A  small  splash  of  white  on  the  arm  is  not  objected  to ;  but  when 
the  white  is  too  freely  distributed,  such  as  a  white  blotch  on 
the  jowl,  shoulder,  or  other  part  of  the  l)ody,  it  is  an  objection, 
in  the  eyes  of  most  breeders.  Occasionally  some  of  the  standard 
white  markings  are  missing,  such  as  the  white  on  the  tip  of 
the  tail,  on  one  or  more  of  the  feet,  or  the  white  mark  on  the 
face,  and  the  absence  of  any  of  these  markings  would  also 
constitute  an  objection.  The  standard  of  excellence  of  the 
American  Berkshire  Association  says  nothing  about  disqualify- 
ing an   animal  for  defective  markings,   so  that  each   breeder 

(45) 


46 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


must  be  his  own  judge  as  to  how  inucli  latitude  to  aHow  in  the 
matter  of  markings.  Unless  the  markings  were  glaringly  de- 
fective, it  would  not  seem  to  be  the  part  of  wisdom  to  reject 
Mil  aiiiiiuil  that  was  really  first-class  in  other  respects. 

Origin  and  History. — Berkshires  derive  their  name  from 
Berkshire  in  Knu'land.  tliouah  the  l)rord  is  now  to  1k^  found  iu 


iid.    1.5.      «.  ii.iinpii.il  ticra  CI  iUTkshirea,  Iowa  Stute  Fair. 


all  parts  of  tiu'  British  Isles.  Very  little  is  known  regarding 
the  origin  of  the  original  Berkshire,  but  the  breed  was  very 
different  from  the  Berkshire  of  to-day.  The  old  Berkshire  was 
very  much  coarser  than  the  present  type,  had  lopped  ears,  and 
its  color  was  commonly  a  sandy  or  reddish  b^o^v^l  spotted  with 
black,  or  white  witb  black  spot-s.  Tt  had  a  reputation  of 
producing  a  good  quality  of  meat. 


THE  BERKSHIRE  BREED 


47 


It  is  claiinod  by  some  that  improvement  was  effected  by 
using  black  Siamese  boars  on  the  original  Berkshire  soavs,  and 
others  claim  that  white  and  black-and-white  Chinese  boars  were 
used.  A.  B.  Allen,  who  bred  Siamese  swine  many  years  ago, 
describes  the  breed  as  follows: 

"  They  varied  in  color  from  deep,  rich  plum  to  dark  slate 


¥ir,,    1  I. — Chiiinpion  pen  of  Berkshire  barrows  at  the  International  Kxposition. 


and  black ;  had  two  or  three  white  feet,  bnt  no  white  on  the 
legs  or  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  head  was  short  and  fine, 
wnth  a  dished  face  and  rather  thin  jowl ;  ears  short,  slender, 
and  erect;  shoulders  and  hams  round,  smooth,  and  extra  large; 
back  broad  and  slightly  arched ;  body  of  moderate  length,  deep, 
well  ribbed  up,  and  nearly  as  round  as  a  barrel ;  .  .  .  legs  fine 
and  short;  .  .  .  hair  soft,  silky,  and  thin;  no  bristles,  even  on 


48 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


boars;  .  .  .  llesh  firm,  sweet,  and  vorv  toiidor,   with   lo'^s  loan 
than  tlic  Bcrksliirc.*' 

A  l)r('c<l  snch  as  the  Siamese,  hero  (lescrilH-il.  was  well 
qualifiwl  to  imi)r(>vo  a  coai'so  hreed  like  tho  uM  Uerkshiro. 
Mr.  Allon  favors  tho  theory  that  Chinese  hl^od  was  als.> 
used,  and,  from  his  investigations  in    Kngland,  fixes  tlie  ei>m- 


Fio.   15. — Champion  Herksliire  boar,  Iowa  State  Fair. 

monconuMit  of  improvement  in   tho  r>erkshiro  hv  orossinjr  as 
some  time  previous  to  17>*0. 

EnrJii  Importations. — Allon  states  that  "Berksliires  were 
fii-st  imported  to  America  in  lS-2.'5  by  John  Breutnall  of  Xew 
Jersov.  Tho  first  importation  to  Panada  is  said  to  have  lxK?n 
made  in  1838.  Y.  D.  Cobum  states  that  for  ten  yeai*s  subse- 
quent to  1831  there  was  active  speculation  in  importing  Berk- 


THE  BERKSHIRE  BREED  49 

shires  and  selling  them  at  inflated  prices,  and  that,  the  methods 
employed  hv  speenlators  injnred  the  ])opnlarity  of.  the  hreed 
and  retarded  its  progi'ess.  The  real  merit  of  the  breed  eventu- 
ally overcame  the  prejudice  which  had  been  created,  and  to-day 
the  breed  is  very  popular  in  both  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Distribution. — Berkshires  are  found  in  every  state  and  ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States,  the  most  important  centres  being 
Illinois,  Missouri,  Indiana,  Texas,  Ohio,  Kansas,  Iowa,  Xew 
York,  ^lichigan,  and  Tennessee.  They  are  found  also  in  every 
Canadian  province,  Ontario  taking  the  lead.  They  are  dis 
tributed  all  over  the  British  Isles,  and  have  made  their  way 
into  South  America,  Hawaii,  and  some  countries  on  the 
European  Continent. 

Types. — Berkshires  var\'  more  or  less  in  type,  the  type 
being  intiuenced  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  demands  of  the 
market  in  the  countries  where  they  arc  bred  as  well  as  by  the 
methods  of  individual  breeders.  In  the  United  States  it  is 
only  natural  to  expect  them  to  conform  to  the  fat  or  lard 
type,  and  some  breeders  have  gone  rather  to  the  extreme  in 
breeding  for  fine  bone,  smoothness,  and  quality  and  neglecting 
size  and  fecundity.  The  best  breeders,  however,  are  succeed- 
ing in  maintaining  size  and  quality  and  in  producing  a  really 
useful  animal. 

In  Canada  the  tendency  is  to  select  for  a  lengthy,  strong- 
l)oned  type,  which  looks  somewhat  coarse  and  leggy  when 
compared  with  tlie  extremely  fine  type,  but  which  is  a  first- 
class  farmers  hog.  The  demand  for  the  bacon  type  in  Canada 
and  competition  with  the  bacon  breeds  have  had  an  influence 
in  bringing  about  this  modification.  (Fig.  10.) 

The   so-called   Large   English   Berkshire   is  not  a   distinct 
breed,  nor  is  it  necessarily  a  distinct  family  or  branch  of  the 
breed.     In  England,   as  in  any  other  country,  the  Berkshire 
4 


50 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


will  be  found  to  vary  more  or  less  in  type,  and  some  importers 
select  the  larger,  stronger-boned  animals  and  import  tliem  under 
the  name  of  Large  English  Berkshires.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
some  of  them  may  be  litter  mates  of  animals  of  the  fine-boned 
type. 

Utility. — The  Berkshire  is  better  suited  for  supplying  the 
market  demand  for  fat  hogs  than   it   is  for  producing  bacon 


Fio.    16. — A  Berkshirf  sow  of  nciirlv  bacon  lypo 


hogs.  Where  backs,  shoulders,  :uid  liams  are  tlio  ni;iiii  re- 
quirements, the  Berkshire  fits  in  exceptionally  well,  but  for 
the  export  bacon  trade  in  "  Wiltshire  sides  "  it  has  scarcely 
enough  length  of  side  and  has  t<io  heavy  a  neck  and  shoulder. 
When  crossed  with  the  Large  Yorkshire  or  Tamworth,  an 
excellent  fanner's  hog  is  the  result,  though  perhaps  it  is  a 
little  nearer  the  bacon   type  than   the  fat  type.      Berkshires 


THE  BERKSHIRE  BREED 


51 


have  given  a  good  account  of  themselves  in  the  market  classes 
of  leading  exhibitions  where  thev  have  come  into  competition 
with  other  breeds. 

In  early    maturity   Berkshires  stand   well,    attaining  good 
■weights    at   an   early   age    and    fattening   readily.    (Fig.    17.) 


Fig.    17. — Berkshire  sow.     Au  Ljwa  State  Fuir  thaminun. 


Some  would  place  the  Poland-China  ahead  of  the  Berkshire 
in  point  of  early  maturity,  while  others  would  place  the  Chester 
AYliite  or  Duroc-Jersey  at  the  head  of  the  list ;  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  among  the  best  representatives  of  the  breeds  men- 
tioned there  is  not  any  very  marked  difference  in  point  of  early 
maturity. 


52  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

The  Berkshire  ranks  Avith  ihc  Ik-sI  as  aji  eeonoiuical 
producer  of  pork.  Probably  it  will  never  l)c  known  which 
breed  is  capable  of  making  the  dieapest  gain,  but  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  tho  Jjerksliirr  will  produce  pi»rk  as  cheaply  as 
any  otlier  breed. 

The  flesh  of  the  Berkshire  is  of  excellent  quality  and  carries 
a  large  proportion  of  lean  to  fat.  Investigations  regarding 
the  quality  of  meat  from  different  breeds  generally  agree  in 
giving  the  Berkshire  a  high  i»lace. 

Berkshire  sows  of  the  more  lengthy  type  are  pmlitie  and 
generally  make  good  motliei-s;  Imt  the  extremely  tine,  slmrt 
type  of  sow  seldom  produces  such  large  litt<'i's.  Tlu-  Iniars 
are  prepotent,  and  cross  Avell  with  almost  any  other  breed, 
as  well  as  Ix'ing  useful  for  imjiroving  common  stock. 

Berkshire  Score  Card. — yollowing  is  the  standard  of  ex- 
cellence adopted  by  the  American  Berkshire  Association: 

Counts. 
Color — Black,  with  wliito  on  fi-et.  face,  tij)  of  tail,  and  an  occasional 

splash  on  the  ann    4 

Face  and  Hnout — Short;    tlic  former   fine  aiui   well    disiu'd,*  and   luoad 

between   the  eyes    7 

Eye — Very  clear,  rather  lar<ie.  dark  liazel  or  jrray 2 

Ear — CJenerally    almost    erect,    hut    sometimes    indiiu-d    forward    witli 

advancing  age;   medium  size,  thin  and  soft 4 

Jowl — Full  and  hea\y,  running  well  hack  on  neck 4 

"Seel: — Short  and  broad  on  toj)   4 

Hail' — Fine  and  soft;   medium   tliickness    .3 

»S7ii"h — Smooth   and  ])liahle    4 

Shoulder — Thick  and  even,  hroad  on  top,  and  deep  tlinnigli  cliest 7 

Rai'k — 'Broad,  short,  and  straight;  ribs  well  sprung,  coupling  close  to 

hips     8 

Side — Deep  and  well   let   down:   straiglit   on  bottom   lines 0 

Flank — Well  back   and    low  down   on   leg.  making  nearly  straight  line 

with  the  lower  part  of  side H 

J.oxn — Full  and  wide   9 

JJam — Deep  and  thick,  extending  well   u|>  on  back  and  holding  thick- 
ness well   down   to   hock    10 


THE  BERKSHIRE  BREED  53 

Tail — Well  set  up  on  l>:uk :   t:i]>i'riii<,r  and  not  course 2 

Legs — Short,  straifjht.  and  stron<j.  sot  wide  apart,  with  hoofs  erect  and 

capalde  of  liohling  good  weight    5 

Syinmctii/ — Well   proportioned  throughout,  depending  largely  on  con- 
dition            G 

Condition--\n  a  good,  healthy,  growing  state;  not  over-fed 5 

i^tylc — Attractive,  spirited,   indicative  of  thorough  breeding  and  con- 
stitutional vigor   ^ 

Total    100 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  a  general   description  of  the  Berksliire  breed.     What   is  the 
color?     Shape  of  face?     Tendency  of  ears? 

2.  Tell  of  the  origin  and  liistory  of  this  breed. 

3.  Tell  of  the  early  importation  to  America. 

4.  Tell  of  their  present  distribution. 

5.  Wliat  differences   in   type  are  found   among   Berkshires? 

G.  Tell   of   their   suitability   to   filling   the   demands   for   fat   hogs   and 
for  bacon  hogs. 

7.  Discuss  their  early  maturity;   fiesh ;  size  of  litters. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
THE  POLAND-CHINA   BREED. 

*^  Description. — In  size  the  Poland-China  is  generally  ranked 
as  medium,  and,  as  a  breed,  it  would  probably  hardly  aver- 
age up  with  the  Berkshire,  though  it  cannot  be  said  that 
there  is  much  difference  between  tlie  two  breeds  in  point  of 
size.  The  face  is  practically  straight,  and  the  jowl  full  and 
heavy.  The  ears  should  be  fine  and  firmly  attached,  with  the 
tip  drooped,  the  droop  taking  in  about  one-third  of  the  length 
of  the  ear.  Ears  that  are  loosely  attached  and  droop  right 
from  the  point  of  attachment  are  seriously  objected  to.  The 
shoulder  is  heavy,  and  the  side,  whicli  is  somewhat  short,  is 
very  deep.  The  back  is  wide,  and  the  top-line  very  slightly 
arched.  (Figs.  18  and  19.) 

The  hind  quarter  is  heavily  fleshed,  and  the  ham  should 
be  exceptionally  wid(>  and  deej).  As  a  rule,  the  legs  an*  very 
short,  and  the  bone  fine — too  fine  in  some  cases. 

Years  ago,  Poland-Chinas  were  freely  marked  with  white, 
but  the  fashionable  color  to-day  is  practically  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Berkshire, — namely,  black,  with  white  on  face,  feet, 
and  tip  of  tail.  A  limited  numlKT  of  small  white,  markings  on 
other  parts  ai"<'  n<it  seriously  objected  to. 

Origin  and  History. — The  Poland-China  originateil  in 
Butler  and  Warren  counties  in  Ohio.  The  Great  ^liami  and 
Little  ^liami  rivers  drain  the  two  counties  mentioned,  and  the 
Miami  Valley  is  a  vers'  fertile  district.  The  exact  origin  of 
the  breed  is  not  altog'tlier  clear,  and  lengthy  controversies 
have  occurred  regarding  certain  points  connected  therewith. 
It  is  out  of  the  question  to  discuss  the  various  theories  which 

(54) 


THE  POLAND-CHINA  BREED 


55 


have  been  put  forth,  aud  the  following  brief  summary  of 
matters  pertaining  to  the  origin  of  the  breed  may  be  regarded 
as  reasonably  accurate. 

Previous  to  1816  the  Russia  and  Byfield  breeds  were  used 
extensively  for  crossing  upon  the  common  hogs  of  the  Miajni 
Valley.     Those  were  both  white  breeds  possessing  more  or  loss 


FlQ.   18. — Champion  Pohmd-C'hina  sow  at  the  International  Exposition. 

merit  as  feeders.  In  ISIG  the  Society  of  Shakers  of  Union 
Village,  "Warren  County,  brought  a  boar  and  three  sows  from 
Philadelphia.  The  pigs  were  represented  to  the  Shakers  as 
being  of  pure  Chinese  blood,  and  they  were  called  Big  Chinas. 
The  boar  and  two  of  the  sows  are  said  to  have  been  pure 
whit-e,  and  the  other  sow  was  white  with  some  sandy  and  black 
spots.     These  Big  Chinas  and  their  descendants  were  crossed 


56 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


freely  uj)oii  the  hot^  then  in  tlio  countv,  ami  the  resulting  type 
came  to  be  knowii  as  the  Warren  ('oiiiity  Ilog.  The  Big 
China  was  a  medium-sized  breed  with  fine  bone  and  good  feed- 
ing qualities,  and  its  use  upon  the  hogs  of  WaiTcn  County 
effected  a  marked  improvement.     It  is  also  stated  that,  fol- 


Via.  19. — Yearling  Poland-China  boar.     Sweepstakes  winner  nt   tho   l.rniisiarui  I'unli.'i.se 

IvNpo.sition. 

lowing  the  intmduetion  of  the  Hig  China,  other  Chinese  hogs 
of  smaller  and    liner   tyjx'   were  brought  into   the  county. 

In  ISHT)  or  is;^n  Berkshires  were  introduced  and  used 
quite  extensively,  and  about  ls;ll»  (ir  IS  10  the  frlsh  Grazier 
was  imported  and  crossed  npim  these  ju'gs  of  ('(unplicated  ItreiMl- 
ing  in  Warren  County.  The  li-ish  Crazier  was  a  whi<e  bre<'d 
of  considerable  merit,  and  did  its  share  towards  niodifviug 
Miami  Valley  hogs. 


THE  POLAND-CHINA  BREED  57 

It  was  cliiimed  by  sonic  that  a  Poland  breed  was  used 
for  crossing  upon  Warren  County  bogs,  while  otliers  claimed 
tliat  no  such  breed  was  ever  introduced,  and  an  extended 
controversy  ensued,  which  ended  in  the  appointment  of  an 
investigating  committee,  which  reported  its  findings  to  the 
!N'ational  Swine  Breeders'  Convention  held  in  Indianapolis  in 
1872.  The  Committee  reported  against  the  tlieory  that  a 
Poland  breed  had  been  used,  but  recommended  that  the  name 
Poland-China  be  recognized  as  the  accepted  name  of  the  breed. 
The  recommendation  was  adojjfed,  and  since  that  time  the 
breed,  wliicli  jtrcviously  had  been  known  by  a  great  variety 
of  names,  has  Ix'en  known  as  the  Poland-China.  It  is  claimed 
that  no  outside  blood  has  Ix'en  infused  into  this  breed  since 
1845. 

DIstrihulion.—Tho  Poland-China  is  widely  distributed  over 
the  United  States.  The  principal  states  for  the  breed,  accord- 
ing to  the  secretary  of  the  American  Poland-China  Record 
Association,  are  Iowa,  Illinois,  Texas,  Missouri,  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Minnesota,  South  Dakota,  Wiscon- 
sin, Oklahoma,  and  ]\Iichigan,  but  there  are  few  states  where 
Pohand-Chinas  are  not  to  be  found. 

Though  represented  in  Canada,  the  breed  has  not  yet  ob- 
tained a  strong  foothold  in  that  country,  and  outside  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  the  breed  is  but  little  known. 

Types. — The  older  type  of  Poland-China  was  a  larger, 
more  rang\',  and  heavier-boned  hog  than  the  Poland-Chinas 
seen  in  the  show-rings  of  to-day.  Breeders  of  Poland-Chinas 
have  rather  gone  to  the  extreme,  on  the  whole,  in  the  matter 
of  selecting  for  fineness  of  bone,  and  the  result,  in  many  cases, 
is  a  hog  that  lacks  somewhat  in  size  and  fecundity.  At  the 
present  time  the  advisability  of  developing  more  size  and  l)one 
in  the  breed  is  being  widely  discussed  in  the  public  pre.ss,  and 


58  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

thoughtful  breeders  will  give  the  matter  careful  consideration. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  the  best  breeders  will  succeed  in 
maintaining  quality  witliout  sacrificing  utility,  aiid  that  the 
over-tine  type  will  fall  into  disfavor  with  tlie  general  farmer. 

Utility. — The  Poland-China  has  been  developed  especially 
to  meet  the  market  demand  for  a  fat  or  lard  hog.  The  heavy 
shoulder,  wide  back,  and  largely  developed  hams  render  it  an 
exceptionally  good  yielder  from  the  packer's  stajid-point. 

A  cross  between  tlie  Poland-China  and  the  Berkshire, 
Duroc-Jersey,  or  Chester  White  is  generally  highly  esteemed, 
and  many  regard  the  oross-breds  as  superior  to  the  pure-breds 
for  feeding. 

As  to  early  maturily,  or  the  ability  to  produce  a 
finished  fat  carcass  for  the  butcher  at  an  early  age,  no  breed 
excels  the  Poland-China.  It  has  Ix^en  bred  for  early  maturity 
for  generations,  and  has  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  this 
regard. 

The  Poland-China  is  a  general  favorite  with  etirn-belt. 
farmers.  It  has  Ix-en  developed  upon  coni-feeding,  and  will 
probably  stand  heavy  cx>rn  feeding  better  than  most  other 
breeds.  As  a  machine  for  turning  corn  into  pork,  it  is  hard 
to  beat,  and  it  is  also  a  good  grass  hog. 

The  meat  of  the  Poland-China  has  been  criticised  freely 
for  carrying  too  large  a  proportion  of  fat  to  lean,  and  there 
seems  to  be  good  ground  for  the  criticism.  In  their  etfort.s 
to  bring  the  breed  to  its  present  stage  of  perfection  as  a  feeder, 
breeders  have  overlooked  the  production  of  lean  along  with 
fat.  but  the  breed  seems  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  American 
packer,  and  he  is  willing  to  pay  top  market  price  for  it. 

Since  so  much  attention  has  boon  paid  to  the  development 
of  fine  lx)no  and  a  marked  tendency  to  fatten  in  this  breed, 
it  is  not  surprising  to  find  it  criticised  as  lacking  in  fecundity. 


THE  POLAND-CHINA  BREED  59 

Statistics  appear  to  indicate  that  the  Poland-China  is  not  up 
to  the  average  of  other  well-known  breeds  in  point  of  fecundity, 
the  deficiency  occurring  mainly  in  the  very  fine-boned  strains. 
This  point  gives  the  breeder  of  Poland-Chinas  food  for  serious 
reflection. 

Owing  to  its  exceptional  tendency  to  fatten,  the  Poland- 
China  is  valuable  for  crossing  upon  hogs  which  lack  this 
tendency,  and  it  is  a  useful  breed  for  improving  the  common 
stock  of  the  country. 

Poland-China  Score  Card. — Following  is  the  description 
and  scale  of  points  for  Poland-Chinas  adopted  by  the  National 
Association  of  Expert  Judges  of  Swine : 

Counts.  Counts. 

Head    4  Feet  and  legs    10 

Eyes     2  Tail    1 

Ears     2  Coat    3 

Neck    2  Color   3 

Jowl     2  Size    5 

Shoulders    6  Action  and  style    3 

Chest    12  Condition    2 

Back  and  loin   14  Disposition     2 

Sides  and  ribs   10  Symmetry  of  points.  ...        3 

Belly  and  flank   4  

Ham  and  rump  10  Total    100 

Detailed  Descriptions. — Head  should  be  broad,  even  and 
smooth  between  and  above  the  eyes.  Slightly  dished,  tapering 
evenly  and  gradually  to  near  the  end  of  the  nose.  Broad 
lower  jaw;  head  inclined  to  shortness,  but  not  enough  to  give 
the  appearance  of  stubby  nose.  And  in  male  a  masculine 
expression  and  appearance. 

Objections. — Head  long,  narrow  between  eyes;  nose  uneven 
and  coarse ;  too  large  at  muzzle  or  the  head  too  short ;  not  full  or 
high  over  eyes,  or  too  wrinkled  around  or  above  the  eyes. 


GO  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

Eycfi. — Full,  clear,  iti-oiiiiiiciit  and  expressive. 

OhjccliuHS. —  I)ull  (  .\i)i'essinii,  dee])  set  or  obscure.  Sig;ht 
impaired  l>y  wriid-cles,  fat,  or  other  cause. 

I'Jars. — Ears  attached  to  the  liead  by  a  short,  fimi  kuuck, 
giving  free  and  easy  action.  Standing  up  slightly,  at  the  base 
to  within  two-thirds  of  the  tip,  where  a  gentle  break  or  droop 
should  occur;  in  size  neither  too  large  nor  t(»o  small,  but 
even,  fine,  thin,  leaf-shape.     Slightly  inclined  outward. 

Objections. — Large,  floppy,  straight,  upright,  or  coarse; 
knuck  long,  letting  the  ear  droop  too  close  to  the  head  and 
face,  hindering  the  animal  of  free  use  of  the  ears. 

Neck. — Short,  wide,  even,  smooth,  well  arched.  Hounding 
and  full  from  poll  to  shoulder,  with  <lne  regard  to  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  sex. 

Objections. — Long,  narrow,  thin,  and  drooping  from  shoul- 
der to  poll,  witli  unevenness  caused  by  wrinkles  or  creases. 

Jowl. — Full,  broad,  deep,  smooth,  and  firm,  carrying  ful- 
ness back  to  near  point  of  shoulders,  and  below  line  of  lower 
jaw,  so  that  the  lower  line  will  be  a.s  low  as  breastbone  when 
head   is  carried   n|»  level. 

Objcclions. — Light,  flabby,  thin,  and  wedge-shaped,  deeply 
wnnkled,  not  droo])ing  below  line  of  lower  jaw.  and  not  carrying 
fulness  l)ack  to  shoulder  and  brisket. 

SJioiiIflcr. — ]>ro;id  and  oval  at  the  top,  showing  evenness 
with  the  back  and  neck,  with  good  width  from  the  toj)  to  the 
bottom,  and  even  smoothness  extending  well  forward 

Objections. — Narrow  at  the  top  or  bottom ;  not  as  deep  as 
the  body;  uneven  width.  Shields  on  pigs  under  eight  months 
of  age,  or  showing  to<»  much  shield   at  any  age. 

Chest. — Large,  wide,  deep,  and  full ;  even  under  lino  to  the 
shoulder  and  sides,  with  no  creases;  giving  plenty  of  room 
for  heart  and  other  organs,  making  a  large  girth,  indicating 


THE  POLAND-CHINA  BREED  61 

much  vitality.  Brisket  smooth,  even,  and  broad,  wide  between 
legs,  and  extendinc;  well  forward,  showino^  in  front. 

Objections. — Pinched  appearance  at  th(^  top  or  bottom,  or 
tucked  in  back  of  fore  legs ;  showing  to<i  narrow  between  the 
legs;  not  depth  enough  back  of  tlie  shoulder.  Brisket  uneven, 
narrow,  not  prominent. 

Back  and  Loin. — Broad,  straight  or  slightly  arched,  carrying 
same  width  from  shoulder  to  ham ;  surface  even,  smooth,  free 
from  lumps,  creases,  or  projections;  not  too  long,  but  broad 
on  top,  indicating  well-sprung  ribs ;  should  not  be  higher  at 
hip  than  at  shoulder,  and  should  fill  out  at  junction  with  side 
so  that  a  straight-edge  placed  along  at  toj)  of  side  will  touch  all 
tlie  way  from  point  of  shoulder  to  point  of  ham ;  should  be 
shorter  than  lower  belly  line. 

Objections. — Xarrow,  creased  back  of  shoulders,  swayed  or 
hollow,  drooping  below  a  straight  line;  humped  or  wrinkled; 
too  long  or  sun-fish  shaped ;  loin  high,  narrow,  depressed  or 
humped  up ;  surface  lumpy,  creased,  ridgy'  or  uneven ;  width 
at  side  not  as  much  as  shoulder  and  ham. 

Sides  and  Bibs. — Sides,  full,  firm,  and  deep,  free  from 
wrinkles;  carrying  size  down  to  belly;  even  from  ham  to 
shoulder;  ribs  of  good  length,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom. 

Objections. — Flat,  thin,  flabby,  pinched,  not  as  full  at 
bottom  as  top ;  drawn  in  at  shoulder  so  as  to  produce  a  crease, 
or  pinched  and  tucked  up  and  in  as  it  approaches  the  ham ; 
uneven  surface' ;  ribs  flat  or  too  short. 

Belly  and  Flanl: — Belly  broad,  straight,  dnd  full,  indicat- 
ing capacity  and  room,  being  about  the  same  or  on  a  level 
at  the  flank  with  the  under  chest  line.  Under  line  straight 
or  nearly  so,  and  free  from  flabby  appearance. 

Objections. — Belly  uneven  and  flabby,  or  apparent  looseness 
in  the  make-up.    Pinched  up  in  the  flank  or  flanked  too  high. 


62  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

llam  and  Bump. — Ilams  broad,  full,  deep,  and  long  from 
rump  to  liock.  Fully  developed  above  and  below,  being  wide 
at  the  point  of  the  hip,  carrying  width  well  down  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  hams.  Fleshy,  plump,  rounding  fulness  perceptible 
everywhere.  Kump  rounding  and  gradually  sloping  from  the 
loin  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  Broad  and  well  developed  all 
along  from  loin,  and  gradually  rounding  to  the  buttock ;  lower 
front  part  of  ham  should  he  full  and  stifle  well  covered  witJi 
flesh.  Even  width  of  ham  and  rump  with  the  back,  loin,  and 
body.     Even  a  greater  width  as  to  females  not  objectionable. 

Ohjeciioiis. — Ham  short,  narrow,  too  round  or  slim.  Not 
filled  out  above  or  below,  or  unshapely  for  deep  meat ;  not  as 
wide  as  the  body,  back,  or  loin ;  too  tapering  or  small.  Rumj) 
narrow  or  pointed,  not  plump  or  well  filled,  or  too  steep  from 
loin  to  the  tail. 

Legs  and  Feci. — Legs  medium  length,  straight,  set  well 
apart  and  squarely  under  body,  tapering,  well  muscled  and  wide 
above  knee  and  hock ;  below  hock  and  kne<'  round  and  tapering, 
capable  of  sustaining  weight  of  animal  in  full  flesh  without 
breaking  down;  bone  firm  and  of  fine  texture;  pasterns  short 
and  nearly  upright.  Feet  firm,  short,  tough,  and  free  from 
defects. 

Objections. — Legs  long,  slim,  coarse,  crooked  ;  muscles  small 
above  hock  and  knee ;  bone  large,  coarse ;  as  large  at  foot  as 
above  knee;  pasterns  long,  slim,  crooked,  or  weak;  the  hocks 
turned  in  or  out  of  straight  line;  legs  too  close  together;  hoofs 
long,  slim,  and  weak;  toes  spreading  or  crooked  or  unable  \o 
bear  up  weight  of  animal  without  breaking  down. 

Tail. — Tail  of  medium  length  and  size,  smooth  and  tapering 
well,  and  carried  in  a  curl. 

Objections. — Coarse  and  long  without  a  curl ;  or  short, 
crooked,  or  stubby ;  or  too  small,  even,  not  tapering. 


THE  POLAND-CHINA  BREED  63 

Coat. — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  lying  close  to  and  covering 
the  body  well ;  not  clipped,  evenly  distributed  over  the  body. 

Objections. — Bristles,  hair  coarse,  harsh,  thin,  wavy  or 
curly;  swirls,  standing  up,  ends  of  hair  split  and  brown,  not 
evenly  distributed  over  all  of  the  body  except  belly.  Clipped 
coats  should  be  cut  1.5  points. 

Color. — Black  with  six  (6)  white  points:  tip  of  tail,  four 
white  feet,  and  white  in  face  on  the  nose  or  on  the  point  of 
lower  jaw.  All  to  be  perceptible  without  close  examination. 
Splashes  of  white  on  the  jaw,  legs,  or  flank  or  a  few  spots  of 
white  on  the  body  not  objectionable. 

Objections. — Solid  black,  white  mixed  or  sandy  spots. 
Speckled  with  white  hairs  over  the  body ;  mottled  face  of  white 
and  black,  hair  mixed,  making  a  grizzly  appearance. 

Size. — Large  for  age.  Condition,  vigor,  and  vitality  to  be 
considered.  There  should  be  a  difference  between  breeding 
animals  and  those  kept  or  fitted  for  the  show  of  at  least 
25  per  cent  in  size.  In  show  condition,  or  when  fat,  a  two- 
year-old  boar  should  not  weigh  less  than  600  poimds,  and  a 
sow  not  less  tlian  500  pounds.  Boar  one  year  and  over,  400 
poimds ;  sow,  350  pounds.  Boar  of  eighteen  months,  500 
pounds;  sow,  450  pounds.  Boars  and  sows  six  months  old, 
not  less  than  160  pounds.  All  hogs  in  just  fair  breeding  con- 
dition, one-fourth  less  for  size.  The  keeping  and  chance  that  a 
young  hog  has  cuts  quite  a  figure  in  his  size  and  should  be 
considered,  other  points  being  equal.  Fine  quality  and  size 
combined  are  desirable. 

Objections. — Overgrown;  coarse,  flabby,  loose  appearance, 
gangling,  hard  to  fatten ;  too  fine,  undersize ;  short,  stubby, 
inclined  to  chubby  fatness.     Xot  a  hardy  robust  animal. 

Action  and  Style. — Action  vigorous,  easy,  and  graceful. 
Style     attractive;     high     carriage;     in     boars     the     testicles 


114  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

proiiiinciit   ;iii(l  <if  altdut   tlic  sniiR'  si/c,  and  vet   not  too  largo 
and  [iKiicliv. 

Ohjcclloiis. — ('lunisv,  slow,  awkwai'd  movement;  low 
carriage;  waddling  (»r  twisting  walk.  A  seeming  tired  or  lazy 
ajipoarancc;  not  standing  erect  and  linn. 

Condition. — Healthy ;  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales,  and  sores ; 
soft  anil  mellow  to  the  toneh  ;  flesh  fine,  eveidy  laid  on,  and 
free  from  lumps  and  wrinkles.  Hair  soft  and  lying  close  t<» 
body;  good  feeding  qualities. 

Objections. — I'ldiealthy ;  skin  scaly,  wrinkled,  seabhy,  or 
harsh:  llabbiness  or  lum])v  flesh;  too  much  fat  for  breeding. 
Hair  harsh,  dry,  and  standing  up  from  body;  poor  feeders; 
deafness.  ]iartial  or  total. 

Disposition. — Lively,  easily  handled  and  seemingly  kind, 
responsive  to  good  treatment. 

Objections. — Cross,  sluggish,  restless,  wild,  or  of  a  vicious 
turn. 

Si/mmetnj  or  Adaptation  of  Points. — The  adaptation  of  all 
the  points,  size,  and  style  combined  to  make  the  desired  type 
or  model. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  a  general  description  of  the  Poland  Cliina  Imi'd.  Color. 
Tendency  of  ears. 

2.  Tell  of  tiu'  orifriii  and  history  of  tliis  hrci-d. 
."{.  How  did  the  coinpoiind  name  ori<;inate"!' 

4.  Tell   of  tlieir   jjresent   jH>|tulnrity  and   distrilmfion. 
r}.  Tfll  of  tlie  ohler  and  tlie  recent  types. 
(■).  W  lial  can  t>f  said  of  their  special  utility? 

7.  Discuss  tlit'ir  early  nuiturity;   meat;  size  of  litters. 

8.  Why  are  they  valuable  for  crossing'  with  the  "common  stock"  of 
the  country? 

!).  fJive  some  very  ohjcctioiuiMc  points,  wlien  found,  rcj^'ardiufj  slioul- 
der,   l)ack  and   loin,   liam  and   rump. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  CHESTER  WHITE  BREED. 

Description. — At  one  time  the  Chester  White  was  rated  as 
tlie  largest  breed  in  the  United  States,  but  the  tendency  of 
modern  breeding  has  been  towards  the  production  of  a  liner- 
boned,  smoother,  and  smaller  animal  than  the  older  type,  and  at 
present  the  Chester  White  is  similar  to  the  Poland-China  in 
size,  though  it  is  commonly  claimed  that  it  is  a  larger  breed. 
The  face  is  straight,  and  the  snout  is  usually  a  little  longer  than 
that  of  the  Poland-China.  It  has  a  drooped  ear,  similar  to 
that  of  the  Poland-China,  but  the  droop,  or  break,  is  usually 
further  from  the  tip.  As  a  rule,  too,  the  ear  is  somewhat 
heavier,  and  it  is  quite  common  for  it  to  be  somewhat  loosely 
attached. 

In  general  conformation,  the  Chester  WHiite  is  similar  to 
the  Poland-China,  though  the  latter  generally  excels  in  depth 
and  fulness  of  ham,  and  many  Chester  Wliites  are  rather  longer 
in  the  body  than  the  Poland-Chinas.  (I'ig.  20.) 

The  color  is  white,  no  black  hair  being  admissible,  though 
it  is  common  for  black  or  bluish  spots  to  occur  on  the  skin. 
These  spots  do  not  indicate  impurity  of  blood,  but  breeders 
aim  to  avoid  them  as  much  as  possible,  and,  if  the  spots  are 
large  or  numerous,  they  constitute  a  serious  objection.  In  many 
specimens  the  hair  has  a  tendency  to  be  wa^'7,  and  in  some 
cases  it  is  almost  curly. 

Origin  and  History. — ]\rost  authorities  recognize  three 
sources  of  origin  for  Chester  White  swine,  the  history  of  which 
may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.   The  original  Chester  White  had  its  origin  in  Chester 

5  (65) 


66  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

Couiitv,  P<-nnsvlv:nii;i.  liciicc  the  iiaiiic  I.ni'ffo,  white  pig^  were 
conniMiM  in  ("licstci-  ('ouiitv  hkiiiv  vciirs  jiiTo.  Tlicy  were  t;iken 
there  hv  tlie  earliest  setthrs,  hut  it  is  not  clearly  known  where 
tlie  original  pigs  came  from.  About  the  year  1818,  Captain 
James  Jeffries  ini])orted  from  England  a  ])air  of  white  ])igs 
wliich   arc  refernMl  to  l)y  some  as  Bedfordshire  i>igs,   and   hv 


Fici.   20. — Chester  White  bour,  winner  ol  many  pnzea  at  State  fairs. 

others  as  Cumberland  ])igs.  Captain  Jeffries  used  the  boar  on 
the  white  sows  of  the  district  witii  good  results.  It  is  stated 
that,  at  a  later  date,  white  ('hincsc  ]tigs  were  brouglit  into 
Chester  County  and  crossed  on  the  st^x'k  of  the  district.  Kventu- 
ally  tlie  different  strains  of  blood  were  combintMl,  and  fnmi  this 
combination  came  the  original  Chester  White  breed. 

2.   The    Improved    Chester    White,    or    Todd's    Improved 


THE  CHESTER  WHITE  BREED  67 

Chester  White,  Ciiii  hardlv  be  regarded  as  a  distinct  strain  of 
the  breed  at  present.  At  one  time  it  had  a  herd  record  of  its 
own,  but  in  l>'St4  the  articles  of  incorporation  were  changed 
to  read  American  Chester  White  Record  Association.  Briefly, 
the  hist.ory  of  the  so-called  Improved  (liester  White  is  as 
follows:  About  1827,  Xorfolk  Thin  Kind  pigs  were  imported 
from  England  to  Connecticut.  Two  brothers,  named  Todd, 
bought  a  boar  of  this  breed  and  a  sow  of  what  was  called  the 
Grass  breed,  and  to<ik  them  to  Ohio,  where  they  were  bred 
together  with  considerable  success.  Later,  one  Joseph  Ilaskins 
brought  to  Ohio  a  boar  of  the  Byfield  breed  and  a  sow  similar 
to  the  original  Todd  sow.  The  Todd  and  Ilaskins  pigs  were 
bred  together,  and  Isaac  Todd  also  used  other  boars  in  his 
herd,  among  which  was  one  said  to  be  of  the  Grass  breed,  and 
another  one  called  a  Xormandy  boar,  though  little  is  known 
of  the  breeding  of  .either  of  them.  Both  these  boars  were  white 
in  color.  In  1865,  Isaac  Todd  introduced  Chester  Wliite  blood, 
and  his  son,  S.  IT.  Todd,  made  further  use  of  the  Chester 
White,  evolving,  by  careful  breeding  and  selection,  what  came 
to  be  known  as  Todd's  Improved  Chester  Wliite. 

3.  The  Ohio  Improved  Chester  ^Yhlte,  commonly  known  as 
the  O.I.C.  strain,  is  the  product  of  the  efforts  of  L.  B.  Silver 
of  Ohio,  who,  in  1865,  commenced  breeding  Chester  \Miites, 
and  who  aimed  to  produce  a  superior  type  through  selection. 
This  branch  of  the  breed  has  an  association  and  herd  record 
of  its  own,  but  it  would  require  a  person  more  than  ordinarily 
expert  to  distinguish  animals  of  this  strain  from  other  Chester 
Whites,  as  they  appear  at  the  various  exhibitions. 

Distribution. — The  Chester  White  is  widely  distributed  in 
the  United  States.  It  is  popular  in  the  East,  and  is  strongly 
represented  in  Ohio,  minois,  Indiana,  Iowa.  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, Pennsylvania,  and  other  states.     It  has  also  spread  to 


68 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


the  South  to  some  extent,  and  seems  to  ho  giving  satisfaction, 
except  for  its  color.  The  breed  is  not  popular  in  tlie  Southern 
states  because  the  wliito  coltn-  all'iws  of  sunburn  and  skin 
troubles.  It  is  also  fairly  well  repn  sented  in  Canada,  whore  it 
has  gained  a  stronger  foot-hold  than  the  Poland-China. 

Types. — Tlio    Chester    Wliito    seems    eapnble    of    sho^ving 


;^v«t'r:    ^j-^ 


Fio.   21. — A  prize-winning  Chester  Whito  sow.     A   sow  of  great  scale,  strong  bono,  and 

attruclivc  charucler. 


more  cxlrcmc  vnriatidus  of  type  than  most  otlicr  breeds.  Jn 
the  show-rings  of  the  United  States,  the  sliortdegged,  iine-boned, 
smooth,  medium-sized  type  seems  to  be  i)referred  by  most  fudijes 
who  seem  incline^l  to  discourage  the  largei  and  heavier-boned 
types.  (Fig.  21.) 

Tn  Canada  more  attention  is  paid  to  lengtli,  and  some  very 
lengthy,  heavy-boned   Chester  ^M^ites   are  sometimes  seen    in 


THE  CHESTER  WHITE  BREED  69 

Canadian  show-rings.  Jn  lUOT,  at  the  Ontario  Provincial 
Winter  Fair,  held  at  Gnelph,  Canada,  a  pair  of  Chester  White 
carcasses  won  sixth  i)i-ize  in  the  bacon  carcass  competition, 
whei-e  they  had  to  compete?  with  Yorkshires,  Tamworths,  and 
Berkshires.  Thongh  they  did  not  make  ideal  carcasses  from 
a  bacon  stand-point,  quite  a  number  of  Yorkshire  and  Tam- 
worth  carcasses,  together  wnth  all  the  Berkshire  carcasses,  were 
ranked  Ix^low  them.  When  it  is  kno\ATi  that  the  Guelpli  fair 
has  the  largest  exhibit  of  bacon  carcasses  on  the  continent, 
it  is  easy  to  understand  that  these  Chester  Whites  must  have 
been  about  as  different  from  the  type  of  the  American  prize- 
■winning  Chester  White  as  it  was  possible  for  them  to  be. 
This  is  an  extreme  case,  but  it  illustrates  the  possibilities  of  the 
breed  under  different  systems  of  selection  and  feeding. 

Utility. — Though  the  Chester  White  can  be  made  to 
approach  the  bacon  type  through  selection  and  feeding,  it  seems 
like  a  waste  of  energy  to  attempt  to  make  it  a  bacon  breed, 
when  first-class  bacon  breeds  are  already  available.  The  Chester 
White  is  best  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  fat-hog  trade, 
and  no  doubt  will  continue  as  such.  In  Canada  it  is  frequently 
crossed  with  the  Yorkshire  and  Tamworth,  giving  a  very  satis- 
factory' feeder's  hog.  In  the  United  States  a  cross  between  the 
Chester  Wliite  and  Poland-China  is  very  popular.  In  fact, 
the  breed  crosses  well  with  almost  any  other,  and  the  Chester 
White  boar  is  very  effective  in  improving  common  stock. 

The  Chester  "White  compares  favorably  witli  other  breeds 
in  early  maturity  and  as  an  economical  producer  of  meat.  It 
is  also  a  good  grazer,  but,  like  otlier  white  breeds,  is  more 
or  less  subject  to  skin  trouble  when  exposed  to  all  kinds  of 
weather.  It  produces  a  good  quality  of  meat,  which,  however, 
is  rather  lacking  in  lean. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  Chester  White,  as  a  breed,  is  some- 


70  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

what  more  prolitic  than  tlu-  PulaiHl-Chiiia  and  the  fine  type 
of  Berkshire,  and  the  chiini  is  snpported  hy  the  findings  of 
Dr.  A.   W.    IJittiii^',  who  investigated  the  niatt<n-  in   1897. 

Chester  White  Score  Card. — Following  is  the  scale  of 
jjoints  adopteil  l)v  the  Standard  Chester  White  Record 
Association : 

Counts.  Counts 

Head  and  faco 4  Ham  and  runij)   10 

Eyes     2  Kft-t  and  h'fr.s 10 

Kai»     2  Tail     1 

Neck     2  Coat     2 

Jowl     2  Color     5 

Shoulders    6  Size    5 

Chest    9  Action  and  stylo 4 

Back  and  loin   15  Condition    4 

Sides  and  rib 8  Disposition    3 


Bellv  and  flank    C 


Total    ino 


Disqualifications. — Form. — Fpriglit  ears;  small,  cramped 
chest;  create  ai'oiind  hack  of  shoulders  and  over  the  hack, 
causing  a  depression  easily  noticed  ;  f(M^t  hroken  downi,  causing 
the  animal  to  walk  on  j)ast<'rn  joints;  dcfdniicd  <ii-  hadly  crcMtkeil 
legs. 

Size. — Chuffy,  or  not  two-thirds  large  enough  f(jr  age. 

Condition. — Sqnal)l>v  fat;  deformed,  seriously  deformed; 
barrenness;  total  hlimlness. 

Score. — TjCSS  than  sixty  points. 

Pedigree. — Xot  eligible  to  recor<l. 

Colar. — Black  or  sandy  spots  in  hair. 

Detailed  Description. — Head  aud  F<icr. — Head  short  and 
wide;  cheeks  neat  hut  not  too  full;  jaws  bmad  and  strong; 
forehead  medium  high  and  wide.  Face  short  and  smo(»th; 
wide  between  the  eyes;  nose  neat  and  tajicring  and  slightly 
dished. 


THE  CHESTER  WHITE  BREED  71 

Objections. — Head  long,  narrow,  and  coarse ;  forehead  low 

and  narrow;  jaws  contracted  and  weak.     Face  long,  narrow^, 

and  straight;  nose  coarse,  clumsy,  or  dished  like  a  Berkshire. 

Eyes. — Large,  bright,  clear,  and  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat 

surroundings. 

Objections. — Small,  deep,  or  obscure;  vision  impaired  in 
any  way. 

Ears. — Medium  size;  not  too  thick;  soft;  attached  to  the 
head  so  as  not  to  look  clumsy ;  pointing  forward  and  slightly 
outward ;  fully  under  the  control  of  the  animal  and  drooping 
so  as  to  give  a  graceful  appeara^nce. 

Objections. — Large;  upright;  coarse;  thick;  round;  too 
small ;  drooping  too  close  to  the  face,  animal  not  being  able 
to  control  them. 

Nech. — Wide ;  deep ;  short  and  nicely  arched. 

Objections. — Long,  narrow ;  thin  ;  flat  on  top  ;  tucked  up ; 
not  extending  do^^^l  to  breastbone. 

Jowl. — Full;  smooth,  neat,  and  firm;  carrying  fulness  back 
to  shoulder  and  brisket  when  the  head  is  carried  up  level. 

Objections. — Light;  too  large  and  flabby;  rough  and  deeply 
wrinkled ;  not  carrying  fulness  back  to  shoulder  and  brisket. 

Shoulder. — Broad,  deep,  and  full,  extending  in  a  straight 
line  with  the  side,  and  carrying  size  do^^^l  to  line  of  belly. 

Objections. — Xarrow  at  top  or  bottom,  not  full  nor  same 
depth  as  body ;  extending  above  line  of  back ;  shields  on  boars 
too  coarse  and   prominent. 

Chest. — Large;  deep  and  roomy,  so  as  not  to  cramp  vital 
organs;  full  in  girth  around  the  heart;  the  breastbone  extending 
fon\'ard  so  as  to  show  slightly  in  front  of  legs,  and  let  down 
so  as  to  be  even  with  line  of  belly,  sho\\nng  a  width  of  not  less 
than  7  inches  between  forelegs  of  a  full-grown  hog. 

Objections. — IN^arrow;  pinched;  heart  girth  less  than  flank 


72  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

girth ;  too  far  let  down  between  forelegs ;  breastbone  crooked  or 
too  short. 

Bach  and  Loin. — Back  broad  on  top;  straight  or  slightly 
arched;    unifomi    width;    sniontli;    fi-cc    from   lumps   or   rolls;  * 
shorter  than  lower  belly  lino  ;  same  height  and  width  at  shonhhr 
as  at  ham ;  loin  wide  and  full. 

Ohjections. — Back  narrow;  creased  back  of  shonMers;  sun- 
fish  shaped;  humped;  SAvayed ;  too  long,  or  lumpy  rolls;  un- 
even in  width;  loin  narrow,  depressed  or  lium])cil. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  fidl ;  smooth ;  deep ;  carrying  size 
down  to  belly;  even  with  line  of  liam  and  shoulder;  ribs  long; 
well  spnmg  at  top  and  lx)ttom,  giving  hog  a  square  form. 

Objections. — Flat;  thin;  flabby;  compressed  at  bottom; 
shrunken  at  shoulders  and  ham;  uneven  surface;  ribs  flat  and 
too  short. 

Bclhj  and  Flank. — Same  width  as  back ;  full,  making  a 
straight  line  and  dropping  as  low  at  flank  as  at  lx)ttom  of  chest ; 
line  of  lower  edge  running  parallel  with  sides;  flank  full  and 
even  with  body. 

Objections. — Belly  narrow;  ]unclied;  sagging  or  flabby; 
flank  thin,  tucked  up  or  drawn  in. 

Ilani  and  Rump. — Ham  broad;  full;  long,  wide,  and  deej); 
admitting  of  no  swells ;  buttock  full ;  neat  and  clean,  tlius  avoid- 
ing flabbiness;  stifle  well  covered  with  flesh,  nicely  tapering 
towards  the  hock ;  rump  should  have  a  slightly  rounding  shape 
from  loin  to  root  of  tail ;  same  widtli  as  back,  making  an  even 
line  with  sides. 

Objection's. — TIams  narrow;  short;  not  tilh'd  out  to  stifle; 
too  much  cut  ui>  in  crotch  or  twist  ;  not  coming  down  to  hocks; 
buttocks  flabby;  rumj)  flat,  narrow,  too  long,  too  stoop,  sharp 
or  peaked  at  root  of  tail. 


THE  CHESTER  WHITE  BREED  73 

Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  short;  straight;  set  well  apart  and 
squarely  under  body;  bone  of  good  size;  firm;  well  muscled; 
wide  above  knee  and  hock;  below  knee  and  hock  round  and 
tapering,  enabling  animal  to  carry  its  weight  with  ease;  pastern 
short  aud  nearly  upright ;  feet  short,  firm,  tough  and  free  from 
defects. 

Objections. — Legs  too  short,  long,  slim,  crooked ;  too  coarse; 
too  close  together;  weak  muscles  above  hock  and  knee;  l)one 
large  and  coarse  without  taper;  pasterns  long;  crooked,  slim 
like  a  deer's ;  hoofs  long,  slim,  weak ;  toes  spreading,  crooked, 
or  turned  up.. 

Tail. — Small;  smooth;  tapering;  well  set  on;  root  slightly 
covered  with  flesh ;  carried  in  a  curl. 

Objections. — Coarse;  long;  clumsy;  set  too  high  or  too 
low ;  hanging  like  a  rope. 

Coat. — Fine ;  straight  or  wavy ;  evenly  distributed  and  cov- 
ering the  lx)dy  well ;  nicely  clipped  coats  no  objection. 

Objections. — Bristles;  hair  coarse;  thin;  standing  up;  not 
evenly  distributed  over  all  of  the  body  except  in  the  belly. 

Color. — "S^liite  (blue  spots  or  black  specks  in  skin  shall  not 
argue  impurity  of  blood). 

Objections. — Color  any  other  than  white. 

Size. — Large  for  age  and  condition ;  boars  two  years  old 
and  over,  if  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less  than  500 
pounds.  Sow,  same  age  and  condition,  not  less  than  450 
pounds.  Boars  18  months  old  in  good  flesh  should  weigh 
not  less  than  400  pounds.  Sows,  350.  Boars  12  months  old, 
not  less  than  300  pounds.  Sows,  300.  Boars  and  sows  six 
months  old,  not  less  than  150  pounds  each,  and  other  ages  in 
proportion. 

Objections. — OvergTo^Vn  ;  coarse ;  imcouth  ;  hard  to  fatten. 

Action  and  Style. — Action  easy  and  graceful;  style  attract- 


74  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

ive;  high  carriage;  in  boars  the  testicles  readily  seen;  same 
size  and  carriage. 

Objections. — Sluggish ;  awkward  low  carriage ;  wabbling 
walk ;  in  males  testicles  not  easily  seen ;  not  of  same  size  or 
carriage,  or  only  one  showing. 

Condition. — Healthy;  skin  clear  and  bright;  free  fnnn 
scurf  and  sores;  flesh  fine  and  mellow  to  the  touch;  evenly  lail 
on  and  free  from  lumps;  good  feeding  qualities. 

Objections. — Unhealtiiy ;  skin  scaly,  scabby,  or  harsh  ;  flesh 
lumpy  or  flabby ;  hair  harsh,  drv',  and  standing  up  from  body ; 
poor  feeders;  total  deafness. 

Disposition. — Quiet;  gentle  and  easily  handled;  witli  am- 
bition enough  to  look  out  for  themselves  if  neglected. 

Objections. — Cross;  restless;  vicious  or  wild;  no  ambition. 

REVIEW, 

1.  Give  a  general  description  of  the  Chester  White  breed.  How  do 
the  ears  differ  from  the  other  white  breeds? 

2.  Tell  of  the  origin  and  early  history  of  this  breed. 

3.  Give  an  account  of  the  O.  I.  C.  strain. 

4.  Tell  of  the  distribution  of  Chester  Whites. 
.5.  What  can   be  said   of  their  difTeront   typos? 

6.  For  what  is  the  breed  best  adapted  ? 

7.  What  are  the  most  popular  crosses  with  this  breed  in  Cana<ia? 
In  the  United  States? 

8.  Discuss  their  earlv  maturitv.  and  the  size  of  litt<>ri. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  DUROC-JERSEY  BREED. 

Description. — The  Duruc-Jersey  is  similar  to  the  Chester 
White  and  Poland-China  in  size,  the  tendency  of  modern 
methods  of  breeding  being  towards  a  medium-sized  hog  with 
rather  fine  bone.  The  snout  is  of  mediimi  length,  the  face 
slightly  dished  or  straight,  and  the  ear  drooped,  much  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Chester  Wliite.  The  jowl  is  heavy,  the  body 
wide  and  deep,  and  the  ham  heavily  fleshed.  The  legs  are 
short,  the  bone  medium  in  weight,  and  the  body  is  noted  more 
for  tliickness  and  depth  than  for  length.  (Compare  Figs.  22 
and  23.) 

Cherry  red  is  the  popular  color,  but  yellowish  red  and 
chestnut  are  often  seen.  A  few  black  spots  on  the  belly  and 
legs  do  not  disqualify,  but  are  objectionable.  Black  markings 
on  any  other  part  of  the  body  are  very  serious  objections. 

Origin  and  History. — Red  pigs  have  existed  in  the  United 
States  for  a  great  many  years,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  satis- 
factory account  of  their  origin.  It  is  stated  that  slave  traders 
brought  in  a  red  breed  of  hogs  from  western  Africa,  known  as 
the  Guinea  breed.  Also,  it  is  said  that  Henry  Clay  imported 
red  pigs  from  Spain  in  1837,  and  that  Daniel  Webster  brought 
red  pigs  from  Portugal  in  18.52.  Further,  it  is  claimed  that 
the  Berksliire,  which  was  freely  marked  with  red  or  sandy  hair 
in  early  days,  was  a  factor  in  the  formation  of  some  of  the 
red  varieties.  Whatever  their  origin,  a  large,  red  breed  of 
lings  attained  to  considerable  prominence  in  Xew  Jersey,  and 
eventually  became  known  as  JersPtj  Erd^<i.  The  Jersey  Ked 
was  a  large  breed  with  large,  lopped  ears  and  good  length  of 

(75) 


76 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


body.  Jt.  was  rather  l<»ii^  in  the  leg  and  coarse  in  1m>ik-  and 
hair,  but  was  valued  on  account  of  its  size,  strong  constitution, 
and  ra])id  growth. 

TJie  IJuroc  originated  in  Saratoga  County,  Xew  York, 
and  is  said  to  be  the  result  of  crossing  a  red  boar  u]>on  the 
sows  of  the  district.     It  is  uncertain  whether  the  boar  cajne 


I'lO.   22.  —  Duroc-Jursry  buur.     An  Inwn  <liaiii|jniii>liip  \miiiiit. 

fiviiii  another  pari  of  New  ^'<ii'k  State  or  frnm  I'liiglaiid.  Tt 
is  said  that  the  b<»ar  was  named  ^'Duimc"  after  a  famous 
stallion,  and  hence  the  name  of  the  bre(vl. 

The  breeders  of  Jersey  Reds  and  Duroc.s  eventually  came 
together,  and  the  two  bi'eeds  were  blended  into  one  iiiider  the 
naine  of  Dnroe-.Tersev.  the  official  amalgamation  taking  place 
in  188-3. 


THE  DUROC-JERSEY  BREED 


77 


Distribution. — The  most  important  centres  for  Diiroc- 
Jerscys  are  Iowa,  Illinois,  Nebraska.  Kansas,  Missouri, 
Indiana,  Ohio,  Minnesota,  Oklahoma,  Texas,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin,  but  the  breed  is  also 
quite  largely  represented  in  many  other  states.  It  has  also 
been  introduced  into  Canada,  but  is  not  largely  represented. 


Fio.  23. — Two-year-old  Duroc-Jersey  sow,  an  Illinoia  State  Fair  Champion. 


Types. — Considerable  variation  is  found  in  tlie  type  of 
Duroc-Jerseys,  as  is  also  the  case  with  other  breeds.  It  is 
claimed  by  some,  that  breeders  have  gone  too  far  in  their 
efforts  to  produce  a  fine-l)oned,  smooth  animal,  in  that  they 
have  sacrificed  too  mucli  of  size  and  fecundity  in  doing  so. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  breeders  are  to  be  found  who  are  producing 
hogs  of  more  bone  and  gre-ater  size,  and  their  hogs  are  attract- 


78  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

ing  considerable  attention  among  those  interested  in  the  breed. 

Utility. — As  the  Duroc-Jersey  is  essentially  of  the  fat  or 
lard  type,  it  seems  to  bo  meeting  the  demands  of  the  American 
packer  in  a  satisfactors'  manner.  It  is  an  early  maturing  hog, 
and  is  capable  of  making  cheap  gains.  In  this  respect  it  is 
probably  quite  equal  to  other  bn^ds.  It  has  a  good  reputation 
as  a  grazer,  and  also  thrives  well  u])on  a  com  diet.  It  has  an 
advantage  over  white  breeds  in  that  its  skin  does  not  blister 
with  the  sun,  a  fact  that  is  causing  it  to  gain  favor  in  the 
South.  Its  meat  is  similar  in  quality  to  that  of  the  Poland- 
China  and  Chest^^r  AMiite,  when  fed  under  similar  conditions. 

For  a  fat  hog,  the  Duroc-Jersey  is  prolific,  and  it  crosses 
well  with  other  breeds,  especially  the  Berkshire  and  Poland- 
China.  As  improvers  of  common  stock  the  Ixiars  In^ar  a  good 
reputation. 

Duroc-Jersey  Score  Card. —  Following  is  the  scale  of  points 
and  description  adopted  by  the  American  I )n roe-Jersey  Record: 

Counts.  Counts. 

Head   and  face    4  Hams  and  rump   10 

Eves     -  I^eps   and   feet    10 

Ears     2  Tail    1 

Neck    2  Coat     2 

Jowl     2  Color    2 

Shoulders    6  Size    5 

Chest   12  Action   and   style    4 

Back  and  loin    15  Condition    4 

Sides  and  ribs 8  Disposition     .1 


Bellv   and   flank    6 


Total    100 


Disqualifications. — Form: — Ears  standing  erect;  small, 
cramped  chest,  and  crease  back  of  shoulders  and  over  back  so 
as  to  cause  a  depression  in  the  back  easily  noticed ;  seriously 
deformed  legs  or  badly  broken-do\sTi  feet. 


THE  DUROC-JKRSEY  BREED  79 

Size. — Very  small,  or  not  two-thirds  large  enough  as  given 
by  the  standard. 

Score. — Less  than  fifty  points. 

Pedigree. — Not  eligible  to  record. 

Detailed  Description, — Head  and  Face. — Head  small  in 
proportion  to  size  of  b<xly;  wide  between  eyes;  face  nicely 
dished  (about  half-way  between  a  Poland-China  and  a  Berk- 
shire) and  tapering  well  down  to  the  nose;  surface  smooth  and 
even. 

Objections. — Large  and  coarse;  narrow  between  the  eyes; 
face  straight;  crooked  nose,  or  too  much  dished. 

Erjes. — Lively,  bright,  and  prominent. 

Objections. — Dull,  weak,  and  obscure. 

Ears. — Medium;  moderately  thin;  pointing  forward,  down- 
ward, and  slightly  outward,  carrying  a  slight  curve ;  attached 
to  head  very  neatly. 

Objections. — Very  large ;  nearly  round  ;  too  thick  ;  swinging 
or  flabby;  not  of  same  size;  dififerent  position  and  not  under 
control  of  animal. 

Neck. — Short,  thick,  and  very  deep  and  slightly  ai*ching. 

Objections. — Long,  shallow^,  and  thin. 

Jowl. — Broad,  full,  and  neat;  carrying  fulness  back  to 
point  of  shoulders  and  on  a  line  with  breastbone. 

Objections. — Too  large,  loose,  and  flabby ;  small,  thin,  and 
wedging. 

Shoulders. — Moderately  broad ;  very  deep  and  full ;  carry- 
ing thickness  well  do\\Ti  and  not  extending  above  line  of  back. 

Objections. — Small;  thin;  shallow;  extending  above  line  of 
back.     Boars  under  one  year  old  heavily  shielded. 

Chest. — Large;  very  deep;  filled  full  behind  shoulders; 
breastbone  extending  well  forward  so  as  to  be  readily  seen. 


80  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

Objections. — Flat;  shallow,  or  not  extending  well  down 
between  forelegs. 

Back  and  Loin. —  IJjiek  niediuiii  in  ln-t'adtii ;  straight  or 
slightly  arching;  carrying  even  width  fn.ni  shonlder  to  ham; 
surface  even  and  smooth. 

Objections. — Narrow;  crease  behind  shoulders;  swayed  or 
humped  back. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  very  deep ;  medimn  in  length ; 
level  between  shoulders  and  hams  and  carrying  out  full  down 
to  line  of  belly.  Ilibs  long,  strong,  and  sprung  in  proportion 
to  width  of  shoulders  and  hams. 

Objections. — Flabby,  creased,  shallow,  and  not  carrying 
proper  width  from  top  to  bottom. 

Belly  and  Flank. — Straight  and  full  and  carrying  well 
out  to  line  of  sides.     Flank  well  do^\^l  to  lower  line  of  sides. 

Objections. — Narrow ;  tucked  up  or  drawn  in ;  sagging 
or  flabby. 

Hams  and  Rump. — Broad,  full,  and  well  let  downi  to  the 
hock;  buttock  full  and  coming  nearly  down  and  filling  full 
between  hocks.  Rump  should  have  a  round  slo])e,  from  loin 
to  root  of  tail ;  same  widtli  as  back  and  well  filled  out  around 
tail. 

Objections. — Ham  narrow;  short,  thin;  not  j)rojecting  well 
down  to  hock;  cut  up  too  high  in  crotch.  Ivnnij)  narrow;  flat 
or  peaked  at  root  of  tail ;  too  steep. 

Legs  and  Feet. — ^lediuni  size  and  length;  straight,  nicely 
tapered;  wide  apart  and  well  set  under  the  Iwxly;  ]nistenis 
short  and  strong.     Feet  short,  firm,  and  t<iugh. 

Objections. — Legs  extremely  long,  or  very  short;  slim; 
coarse;  crooked;  legs  as  large  below  knee  and  hock  as  above; 


THE  DUROC-JERSEY  BREED  81 

set  too  close  together ;  hocks  tiirned  in  or  out  of  straight  line. 
Hoofs  long;  slim  and  weak;  toes  spreading  or  crooked. 

Tail. — Medium;  large  at  base  and  nicely  tapering  and 
rather  bushy  at  end. 

Objections. — Extremely  heavy;  too  long  and  ropy. 

Coat. — Moderately  thick  and  fine ;  straight,  smooth,  and 
covering  the  body  well. 

Objections. — Too  many  bristles;  hair  coarse,  harsh,  and 
rough ;  wavy  or  curly ;  swirls ;  or  not  evenly  laid  over  the 
body. 

Color. — Cherry  red  without  other  admixtures. 

Objections. — Very  dark  red  or  shading  to  brown ;  very  pale 
or  light  red;  black  spots  over  the  body;  black  flecks  on  belly 
and  legs  not  desired,  but  admissible. 

Size. — Large  for  age  and  condition.  Boars  two  years  old 
and  over  should  weigh  600  pounds;  sow  same  age  and  con- 
dition, 500  pounds.  Boar  eighteen  months,  475  pounds;  sow, 
400  pounds.  Boar  12  months,  350  pounds;  sow,  300  pounds. 
Boar  and  sow  pigs  six  months,  150  pounds.  The  figures  are 
for  animals  in  a  fair  show  condition. 

Objections. — ^Rougli  and  coarse  and  lackini^  in  feeding 
qualities. 

Action-  and  Style. — Action  vigorous  and  animated.  Style 
free  and  easy. 

Objections. — Diill  or  stupid;  awkward  and  wabbling.  In 
boars,  testicles  not  easily  seen  nor  of  same  size  or  carriage; 
too  large,  or  only  one  showing. 

Condition. — Healthy;   skin  free  from  scurf,  scales,  sores, 
and  mange ;  flesh  evenly  laid  over  the  entire  body  and  free  from 
any  lumps. 
6 


82  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

Objections. — Unhealthy;  scurfy;  scaly;  sores;  mange;  too 
fat  for  breeding  purposes;  hair  harsh  and  standing  up;  poor 
feeders. 

Disposition. — Very  quiet  and  gentle;  easily  handled  or 
driyen. 

Objections. — Wild,  vicious,  or  stubborn. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Compare  the  Duroc-Jersey  breed  witli  otlier  lard  breeds  as  to  si/.e, 
color,  snout,  ears,  and  legs. 

2.  Give  an  account  of  the  early  liistorA-  of  this  l)reed. 

3.  Tell  of  the  origin  of  the  compound  name. 

4.  What  are  the  most  important  centres  for  Duroc-Jersey  swine? 

5.  Tell  of  the  variations  in  type  of  this  breed. 

6.  What  can  you  say  of  tlieir  utility? 

7.  Mention  several  dis(iualifyiiifr  points  in  the  judging  of  pure-bred 
Duroc-Jerseys. 

8.  Contiast  the  correct  form  with  tlie  objectionable  form  for  hams 
and  rump;  sides  and  ribs;  back  and  laiH. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
THE    HAMPSHIRE    BREED    (THIN    RIND). 

Description. — The  Hampshire  belongs  to  the  class  of 
medium-sized  hogs.  The  face  is  straight,  and  the  ear  inclines 
forward  Imt  docs  not  droop  like  tliat  of  the  Poland-China. 
The  jowl,  shoulder,  and  ham  are  somewhat  lighter  than  those 
of  a  typical  fat  hog.  As  a  rule,  too,  it  has  less  width  of  back, 
a  little  more  length  of  side,  and  slightly  less  depth  of  side  than 
a  hog  of  the  strictly  fat  class.  The  breed  may  be  described 
as  somewhere  between  the  bacon  type  and  the  fat  type  in 
conformation.  (Fig.  24.) 

Mr.  II.  F.  Work,  at  one  time  secretary  of  the  Breed  Asso- 
ciation, describes  the  color  as  follows :  "  In  color  they  are 
either  listed  or  blacks,  the  most  fashionable  color  consisting  of 
black  extremities  with  a  white  belt,  from  four  to  twelve  inches 
wide,  encircling  the  body  and  including  the  fore  legs,  which 
should  also  be  white."  The  term  "  listed "  refers  to  the 
presence  of  the  white  JK'lt.  Mr.  Work  also  states  tliat  there 
are  some  breeders  who  try  to  run  their  herds  all  black,  and  he 
claims  that  breeders  should  not  be  too  particular  regarding 
color,  \\-ith  the  exception  that  white  spots  should  not  be 
tolerated. 

Origin  and  History. — Originally  this  breed  Mas  known  by 
tlie  name  Thi)i  Bind,  but  in  1904  the  name  was  changed  to 
Hampshire ,  which  is  now  the  official  name  of  the  breed. 

According  to  Mr.  Work,  the  Hampshire  traces  io  pigs 
brought  to  Massachusetts  from  Hampshire,  England,  about 
1820  or  1825.  It  is  said  that  descendants  of  this  importation 
were  taken  to  Kentucky  about  1825.     In  any  case,  the  breed 

(83) 


84 


BREEDS  OF  SWIXE 


THE  HAMPSHIRE  liREED  85 

ha:?  IxH'ii  known  in  Kentuekv  for  many  years,  but  it  seems 
impe>ssil)le  to  obtain  detinite  and  rcliable  information  regarding 
its  origin. 

As  shoA\ni  by  the  secretary  of  the  American  Hampshire 
Swine  Record  Association,  tlie  breed  has  made  rapid  progress 
of  late  years,  but,  in  comparison  with  the  older  established 
breeds,  the  number  in  any  one  state  is  not  large,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  Hampshire  has  only  recently  come  into  prom- 
inence. In  recent  years  the  breed  has  found  its  way  into 
Canada,  but  it  has  not  had  time  to  become  widely  distributed 
in  Canada  as  yet. 

Types. — ^ Though  Hampshires  may  vary  in  color,  they 
ajipear  to  \x^  quite  uniform  in  general  type.  Possibly,  as  the 
breed  becomes  more  numerous  and  better  kno\\ai,  variations  in 
tyjx'  may  l)ecome  more  apparent. 

Utility. — It  is  generally  claimed  that  the  Hampshire  is  a 
bacon  hog.  but,  in  this  connection,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that 
what  the  American  packer  calls  a  bacon  hog  is  very  different, 
as  a  rule,  from  the  hog  which  is  suitable  for  making  Wiltshire 
sides  for  export  to  Great  Britain.  Judged  from  the  stand- 
point of  suitability  for  making  export  Wiltshire  sides,  the 
Hampshire  falls  far  short  of  requirements,  as  it  is  too  short  in 
the  side,  too  thick  in  the  shoulder  and  back,  and  too  heavy  in 
the  neck  to  make  a  really  good  Wiltshire  side.  Inasmuch  as 
the  terms  "  bacon  hog "  and  "  bacon  type "  have  been  used 
throughout  this  treatise  to  apply  only  to  hogs  suitable  for 
>u]iplying  export  Wiltshire  sides,  wo  prefer  not  to  class  the 
Hampshire  as  a  hog  of  bacon  type,  though  it  is  well  suited 
for  supplying  bacon  for  home  consumption. 

In  quality  of  flesh  the  Hampshire  has  a  high  reputation. 
It  has  made  a  good  record  in  the  dressed  carcass  competitions 
at  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition   at  Chicago,   and 


86  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

the  packers  appear  to  bold  it  iu  high  esteem.  Its  flesh  carries 
a  high  per  cent    of  kniii  and  is  generally  tiiu^grained. 

In  earlv  maturitv  and  feeding  qualitiet;  the  Hampshire 
seems  to  be  giving  good  satisfaction  t/j  those  who  arc  handling 
it,  and  it  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  grazer.  It  is  an  active, 
hardy  breed,  and  there  is  no  apparent  reason  why  it  should 
not  give  as  good  an  account  of  the  feed  it  consumes  as  any 
other  breed. 

The  Hampshire  ranks  high  in  point  of  fecundity  and  is 
one  of  the  most  prolific  of  American  breeds.  Its  value  for 
cross-breeding  is  not  well  kno\vn,  but  it  seems  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  it  should  cross  well  witli   the  fat  types  of  hogs. 

Hampshire  Score  Card. — Following  is  the  standard  of 
excellence  adopted  by  the  American  Hanij)sliire  Swine  llecord 
Association : 

Counts.  Counts. 

Head  and  face 4 

Eyes     2 

Ears     2 

Neck     2 

Jowl     2 

Shoulders    G 

Chest   12 

Back  and  loin    1") 

Sides   and   ribs    8 

Belly  and   flank    6 

llama   and    niinp    10 

Disqualifications. — Color. — Spotted  or  more  than  twn-ihirds 
white. 

Form. — Any  radical  deformity,  ears  very  large  or  (Irooj)ing 
over  eyes,  crooked  or  weak  legs  or  broken-down  feet. 

CondUion. — Seriously  ini])aire(l  or  diseased,  excessive 
grossness,  barrenness  in  animals  over  two  years  of  age,  chuffy 
or  squabby  fat. 


Tail    

1 

Coat    

o 

Color    

0 

Size    

5 

Action   and   style    .  . 
Condition    

4 
4 

Disposition     

:? 

Total    

.  .  .    100 

THE  HAMPSHIRE  BREED  87 

Size. — Isot  two-thirds  standard  weight. 

Pedigree. — Xot  eligible  to  record. 

Detailed  Description. — Head  and  Face. — Head  medium 
length,  rather  narrow,  cheeks  not  full;  face  nearly  straight  and 
medium  width  between  the  eyes,  surface  even  and  regular. 

Objections. — Head  large,  coarse,  and  ridgy;  nose  crooked 
or  much  dished. 

Eyes. — Bright  and  lively,  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat  sur- 
roundings. 

Objections. — Small,  deep,  or  obscure,  or  vision  impaired 
by  fat  or  other  cause. 

Ears. — Medium  length,  thin,  slightly  inclined  outward  and 
forAvard. 

Objections. — Large,  coarse,  thick,  large  or  long  knuck, 
drooping  or  not  under  good  control  of  the  animal. 

Ned: — Short,  well  set  to  the  shoulders,  tapering  from 
shoulder  to  head. 

Objections. — Long,  thick,  or  bulky. 

Jowl. — ^Light  and  tapering  from  neck  to  point,  neat  and 
firm. 

Objections. — Large,  broad,  deep,  or  flabby. 

Shoidd^rs. — Deep,  medium  width  and  fulness,  well  in  line 
with  back. 

Objection.s. — Xarrow  on  top  or  bottom;  thick  beyond  line 
with  sides  and  hams. 

Chest. — Large,  deep  and  roomy ;  full  girth ;  extending  doA\'n 
even  with  line  of  belly. 

Objections. — Xarrow  at  top  or  bottom,  small  girtb,  cramped 
or  tucked  up. 

Bad-  and  Loin. — Back  straight  or  slightly  arched  ;  medium 
breadth,  with  nearly  uniform  thickness  from  shoulders  to  hams 
and  full  at  loins ;  sometimes  higher  at  hips  than  at  shoulders. 


88  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

Objections. — Narrow,  creased,  or  drooped  behind  shoulders; 
surface  ridgj'  or  uneven. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  full,  smooth,  firm;  carrying  size 
evenly  from  shoulder  to  hams;  ribs  stroiifr,  well  sprnnfr  at  top 
and  bottom. 

Objections. — Sides  thin,  flat,  flabbv,  or  creased,  or  ribs  not 
well  sprung. 

BcJh/  and  Flank. — Straight  and  full,  devoid  of  grossness; 
flank  full  and  running  nearly  on  line  with  sidos. 

Objections. — Belly  sagging  or  flabbv;  ihmk  thin  nr  tucked 
up. 

Hams  and  Rump. — Hams  of  medium  width,  long  and  deep; 
rump  slightly  rounded  from  loin  to  root  of  tail;  butt<M?k  full 
and  neat  and  firm,  devoid  of  flabl)in('ss  or  excessive  fat. 

Objections. — Ham  narrow;  cut  too  liigh  in  (>roteli,  buttock 
flabby;  rump  too  flat,  too  juiitow.  or  too  stee]i,  or  peakeil  at 
root  of  tail. 

Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  nuMliuni  length,  set  well  a])art  and 
squarely  under  lx)dy,  wide  above  knee  and  Inick  and  rounded 
and  well  muscled  below,  tapering;  Ixme  niedinni ;  pasterns 
short  and  nearly  ujiright ;  toes  short  and  tirni,  enahling  the 
animal  to  carrv'  its  weight  with  ease. 

Objections. — Legs  too  long,  slim,  crooked,  coarse,  or  short; 
weak  muscles  alM>ve  h<»ck  ami  knee  bone;  large  and  coarse;  legs 
without  taper;  pasterns  too  long  to  correspond  with  length 
of  leg,  too  crooked,  or  too  slender;  feet  long.  slim,  and  weak; 
toes  spreading,  too  long,  crooked,  or  turned  uj). 

Tail. — Medium  length,  slightly  curled. 

Objections. — Coarse,  long,  clnnisy,  swinging  like  a  ]>endu- 
lum. 

Coat. — Fine,   straight,   smooth. 

Objections. — Bristles  or  swirls,  coarse  or  curly. 


THE  HAMPSHIRE  BREED  89 

Color. — Black,  with  exception  of  white  belt  encircling  the 
body,  including  fore  legs. 

Objections. — Wliite  running  high  on  hind  legs  or  extending 
more  than  one-fourth  length  of  body,  or  solid  black. 

Size. — Large  for  condition;  boar  two  years  old  and  over, 
450;  sow,  same  age,  400;  eighteen  months'  boar,  350;  sow, 
325;  twelve  months'  boar  or  sow,  300;  six  months',  both  sexes, 
140. 

Action  and  Style. — Active,  vigorous,  quick,  and  graceful; 
style  attractive  and  spirited. 

Objections. — Dull,  sluggish,  and  clumsy. 

Condition. — ^Healthy;  skin  free  from  all  defcx'ts;  fl(^h 
evenly  laid  on  and  smooth  and  firm,  not  patchy,  and  devoid  of 
all  excess  of  grossness. 

Ohjections.—^'kin  scurfy,  scaly,  mang^',  or  otherwise  un- 
healthy; hair  harsh;  dwarfed  or  cramped;  not  growthy. 

Disposition. — Docile,  quiet  and  easily  handled. 

Objections. — Cross,  restless,  vicious,  or  with  no  ambition. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Compare  the  Hampshires  with  the  typical  fat  swine. 

2.  Tell  of  their  color:   what  is  meant  by  "listed"? 

.3.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  name  "Hampshire"?  By  what  other 
name  is  it  known? 

4.  Tell  of  the  orifrin  and  early  importations  of  these  ho^s. 
.5.  Compare  the  llampsliires  with  the  typical  l)acon  hop;s. 

6.  Tell   of  their  qualitr  of   flesh. 

7.  What  is  said  of  their  early  maturity,  feeding  qualities,  and  size  of 
litters? 

8.  Mention  the  disqualifications  for  Hampsliires. 


CHAPTER  X. 
THE  LARGE  YORKSHIRE  OR  LARGE  WHITE  BREED. 

Description. — The  Largo  Yorkshire  is  one  of  the  largest 
of  tlu'  breeds  of  swine.  The  face  is  slightly  dished,  and  the 
snout  should  be  of  medium  length  and  iiracticallv  straight. 
"  Tumed-up  "  snouts,  which  were  common  at  one  time,  are  not 
])(»])ul;ir  witli  T>arge  Yorkshire  breoilers  at  present.  The  jowl 
should  be  of  good  width  and  muscular,  but  not  flabbv  nor 
heavily  loaded  with  fat.  The  ears  arc  large,  and  sometimes 
incline  forward,  especially  in  old  animals,  luit  an  erect  ear, 
firmly  attached  to  the  head,  is  jtn^ferred.  The  ear  shoidd  not 
be  coarse,  and  should  be  fringed  with  fine  hair.  The  shoulder 
and  back  are  of  only  medium  width,  the  side  is  long,  and  the 
ham  caiTies  very  little  surface  fat,  making  it  lighter  than  the 
ham  of  the  fat  or  lard  hog.  (Fig.  25.)  The  ham  generally 
has  a  tapering  apj)earance  toward  the  hock,  and  should  be 
well  lleshed  on  the  inside  of  tlie  thigh,  but  there  should  be  no 
wrinkles  or  flabbiness.  The  bone  is  fairly  heavy,  but  should 
be  clean-cut  in  appearance,  and  the  leg  is  longer  than  the  leg 
of  a  fat  hog. 

The  color  is  white.  JJlaek  hairs  should  disqualify,  but 
i)lack  or  blue  S})ot.s  on  the  skin  do  not  disipiality.  The  aim  of 
the  breeders  is  to  reduce  these  skin  sj)ols  |(.  a  uiinimum,  and 
they  object  seriously  to  an  auinud  which  shows  considerable 
patches  of  dark-colored  skin. 

Origin  and  History. — The  Large  Yorkshire  is  of  English 
origin,  ami  is  descended  from  a  race  of  large,  coarse-boned, 
leggy,  while  hogs  which  wen^  eonunon  in  Y<irkshire  and  ad- 
jacent   counties    for    a    great    luauy    years,    Init    whose    origin 

(90) 


THE  LARGE  YORKSHIRE  BREED  91 

set'ins  to  Ix'  iiiikuown.  Owing  t<»  tlie  great  size  of  the  original 
type,  it  Avns  possible  to  cross  them  \vith  finer  breeds  and  still 
retain  plentv  of  si/.e  in  the  ini])roved  animal.  The  main  im- 
jirovenu'iit  in  the  hrccnl  has  taken  place  within  the  past  sixty 
or  seventy  years,  and  it  is  said  that  the  tii'st  important  step 
was  the  cr.>--!ng  of  the  Yorkshire  with  the  White  Leicester, 


ViG.   25.  —  I, arm-   York.shiro  sow,  chainpi(jn  at   the   Kngli.sh   Uoyal   Show.      The   illu.stration 
shows  a  little  weakness  in  hind  pasterns,  but  the  sow  is  not  standing  well. 

which  was  a  large  breed,  but  finer  in  the  bone  and  more  easily 
fattened  than  the  old  Yorkshire.  It  is  also  said  that  the  Wliite 
Leicester  resulted  from  crossing  a  white  Chinese  breed  with 
the  original  Yorkshire. 

Further  improvement  was  effected  by  crossing  with  the 
Small  A\Tiite  breed  of  England, — at  least,  such  is  the  claim 
made  bv  some  authorities,  though  we  have  no  ven'  definite 


92  BREEDS  OP  SWINE 

infoniicitioii  rcpinliiiii-  tin-  vai-ioiis  sto])*  taken  in  lini)r<»ving 
the  breed.  Careful  selectinii  in  the  hands  of  skilful  breeders 
has  done  much  to  improve  the  breed  \nthin  recent  years. 

Though  "  Large  Whit^  "  hogs  have  been  brought  into  the 
United  States  at  various  times  during  the  past  century,  tlie 
first  importation  of  the  improved  type  of  Large  Yorkshire  was 
made  in  1892. 

Disirihutiun. — The  headquarters  for  the  breed  is  Minnesota, 
though  representatives  arc  to  Ix?  found  in  nearly  all  the  state-? 
of  the  Union.  Outside  of  ]\linn6sota,  the  states  of  Xorth 
Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Iowa,  Xew  York,  Ohio,  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  Virginia,  and  Massachusetts  are  probably  the  most 
important  centres  for  the  breed. 

In  Canada  the  breed  has  made  greater  progress  than  in 
the  United  States,  and  is  largely  represented  in  every  province, 
especially  in  Ontario.  The  fact  that  Canada  has  btH'n  making 
a  specialty  of  export  bacon  is  responsible,  in  a  large  nu'asure, 
for  the  prominence  which  the  breed  has  attained. 

Large  Yorkshires  also  occupy  a  vers-  important  place  in 
Denmark,  and  there  are  comparatively  few  countries  of  any 
im])ortan('('  from  a  live-stock  stand-point  where  tlu^  breed  is 
not  i-e])resented. 

Types. — Large  Yorkshires  are  inclined  to  vary  more  ur 
less  in  type,  and  it  requires  skill  in  selection  to  keep  them 
true  to  the  Ik'sI  tyjK',  It  used  to  be  ([uit<'  common  to  find 
short,  turned-up  snouts  among  re])resentative)s  of  the  breenl, 
but,  since  this  style  of  snout  is  commonly  associated  with  a 
h(  avy  jowl,  neck,  and  shoulder,  the  best  breeelers  are  striving 
to  ediminate  it.  Another  ty^e  sometimes  met  with  has  a  long, 
scrawny  neck,  narrow  chest,  and  long,  coarse-boned  legs.  This 
type  generally  has  plenty  of  length  and  a  smooth  shoulder,  but 
it  is  apt  to  Ix'  a  slow  feeder,   and  possesses  too  much  bone 


THE  LARGE  YORKSHIRE  BREED 


93 


and  too  thick  a  skin,  together  with  a  lack  in  quantity  and 
quality  of  flesh.  The  best  type  of  Large  Yorkshire  has  suffi- 
cient length  to  make  a  good  Wiltshire  side,  and  has  constitution 
and  quality  to  such  a  marked  degree  tliat  it  is  unexcelled  from 
a  feeder's  stand-point.  Generally  speaking,  American  breeders 
incline  towards  a  rather  shorter  and  thicker  type  than  is 
popular  with  Canadian  breeders.   (Fig.  2G.) 

Utility. — The  Large  Yorkshire  is  highly  valued  for  bacon 
production,  where  a  long  side  abounding  in  lean  meat,  and  a 


FiQ.  2G. — Champion  and  reserve  champion  Large  Yorkshire  sows  at  the  Louisiana  Pur- 

ch^'se  Exposition. 


light  shoulder  and  neck,  are  especially  desirable.  For  quality 
of  bacon,  it  is  rivalled  only  by  the  Tamworth.  The  large 
proportion  of  lean  to  fat,  the  thick,  fleshy  belly,  and  great 
length  of  side  render  the  breed  peculiarly  desirable  from  th(^ 
bacon-curer's  and  the  consumer's  stand-point.  At  the  Ontario 
Provincial  Winter  Fair,  held  annually  at  Guelph.  Canada, 
Large  Yorkshires  and  their  grades  always  take  a  prominent 
place  in  the  bacon  carcass  competition,  and  carrs'  off  a  large 
share  of  the  prizes. 


94  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

The  Large  Yorkshiiv  is  spoken  of  quite  commonly  as 
being  slower  in  maturing  than  the  fat  tyi)es  of  liogs,  hut  this 
is  not  a  fair  way  of  stating  tlic  case.  From  a  bacon-cnrer's 
stand-point,  Large  Yorkshires  will  reach  desirable  market 
weight  and  condition  at  as  early  an  age  as  any  existing  breed, 
and  there  are  few  breeds  which  CMpial  them  in  this  respect. 
Therefore,  so  far  as  the  fanner,  who  is  feeding  liogs  for  the 
export  bacon  Iradc.  is  conccnicd.  no  breed  excels  the  Largo 
Yorkshire  in  ])oint  of  early  malni'ity.  For  the  production  of  a 
very  fat  carcass  at  an  early  age,  tlu^  Large  Yorkshire  is  not 
so  well  adapted  as  the  fat  or  lanl  types.  It  is  a  special  ]iur- 
pose  breed,  and  foi'  tliat  special  jnirpose  will  mature  just  as 
early,  or  earliei-,  than  almost  any  other  l)reed. 

From  the  fact  tliat  it  grows  rajudly  and  develops  Ixme  and 
muscle  nioi-o  rapidly  ilian  it  forms  fat,  feeders  are  inclined 
to  regard  the  harge  ^'oi-kshire  as  an  expensive  hog  to  feed; 
but  ex])erinients  go  to  show  that  such  is  not  the  case,  and 
that,  undei-  most  circumstances,  it  is  capable  of  giving  as 
large  gains  for  feed  consumed  as  any  other  breed.  Probably 
it  is  not  so  well  adajited  to  grazing  as  some  other  bret'ds,  ami  a 
hot  sun  is  upr.  to  blister  its  skin.  It  is  possible,  too,  that  it 
would  not  thrive  so  well  as  some  other  breeds  ujxm  an  ex<*lusivo 
com  ration.  "SMiere  a  mixed  ration  is  used,  and  especially 
where  pen  ieeding  is  practised,  it  givcvS  a  good  account  of 
the  feed  it  consumes. 

The  large  size  and  the  strong  bone  of  the  Large  Yorkshire 
make  it  valuable  foi  crossing  u]ion  breeds  that  have  lK'Com(> 
unduly  fine  in  the  bone  and  that  lack  size.  Tt  crosses  well 
with  almost  any  of  the  fat  breeds,  increasing  the  size  and 
the  ))r<i]tortion  of  lean  without  injuring  the  fiM'ding  (pialities. 
Large  Yorkshire  sows  are  ]irolific  and  are  good  nurses,  and 
the   boars    are   exceptionally   prepotent,    stamping   their   char- 


THE  LARGE  YORKSHIRE  BREED  95 

actor  and   color  ii|)(»ii   their  progeny  to   a   reniai-kaUle   degree, 
no  matter  Avitli  Avliat  they  are  crossed. 

The  Large  Yorkshire  Score  Card. — Standard  of  excellence 
and  scale  of  points  for  Large  Yorkshires  adopteil  by  the 
American  Yorkshire  C'luh: 

Counts. 
General    Outline — Long   and    deep    in    proportion    to    widtli,    but    not 

massive;    slightly   arched    in  the   back,   symmetrical   and   smooth, 

with  body  firmly  supported  by  well-placed  legs  of  medium  length.  5 
Oittlinc  of  Head — ^loderate  in  length  and  size,  with  lower  jaw  well 

sprung,    and    considerable    disli    toward    snout,     increasing    with 

advanced  maturity   4 

Forehead  and  Poll — Wide 1 

Eye — Medium  size,  clear  and  brigiit    1 

■Joicl — ^Medium,  not  carried  too  far  back  toward  neck,  and  not  flabby.        1 

Snout — Turning  upward  witli  a  sliort  curve,  increasing  with  age 1 

Ear — Medium  in  size,  standing  well  out  from  head,  or  medium  erection 

and  inclining  slightly  forward    1 

Week — Of  medium  length,  fair  width  and  depth,  rising  gradually  from 

poll  to  withers,  muscular,   hut  not  gross,  evenly  connecting  head 

and   body    3 

Outline  of  Body — T.ong,  deep,  and  of  medium  breadth:   equally  wide 

at  shoulder,  side,  and  hams;   top  line  slightly  arched,  luider  line 

straight    7 

Ba<-k — Moderately  broad,  even   in   width   from   end   to  end;    strong   in 

loin,  short  ribs  of  good  length    10 

Shoulder — Large  but  not  massive,  not  open  above 6 

Arm  and  Thiyh — liroad  and  of  medium  lengtli  and  d(V(h)i)nu'nt 2 

Brisket — Wide  and  on  a  level  with  under  line 3 

Hide — Long,  deej),  straight  and  e\cii  from  shotihler  to  hip S 

Rihs — Well  arched  and  dtn-p 5 

Heart  (lirth  and  Flank  (lirth — Ciood,  and  about  eipuil 8 

Hind   Quarters — Long,    to   correspond    with    shoulder    and    side,    deep, 

with  moderate  and  gradual  droop  to  tail 5 

Ham — Tvarge,    well    let   down    on    thigh    and    twist    and    rear    outline 

somewhat  rounded   10 

Tunst — Well  down  and  meaty   1 

Tail — ^Medium,  not  much  inclined  to  curl 1 

Legs — ^Medium  in  length,  strong,  not  coarse,  but  standing  straight  and 

firm    5 

Hair — Abundant,  long,  of  medium  fineness,   without  any  bristles 4 


96  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

Hkin — Smootli  and  wliite,  witlioiit  .sialcs,  Imt  dark  spots  in  the  skin  do 

not  disqualify    2 

Color — White  on  every   part 1 

Movement — Active,  but  not  restless 5 

Total 100 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  a  general  description  of  the  Large  Yorkshire  breed. 

2.  Tell  of  tile  history  of  the  development  of  this  breed. 

3.  Tell  of  tlieir  importation  and  present  distribution. 

4.  What  is  said  of  their  variation  in  type? 

5.  Tell  of  tiieir  importance  as  bacon  hogs. 

G.  What  is  said  regarding  their  slowness  of  maturing? 

7.  Why  is  the  breed  not  popular  in  the  corn  belt?     Why  not  popular 
in  the  South? 

8.  Tell  of  the  value  of  the  breed  in  crossing  with  other  types. 

9.  Contrast  the  breed  with  the  fat  type  swine:   jowl,  outline  of  body, 
shoulder,  side,  ribs,  and  ham. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
THE  TAMWORTH  BREED. 

Description — The  Taiiiwortli  ranks  with  the  Large  York- 
shire in  size.  It  has  a  rather  long,  straight  snout,  and  usually 
has  little  or  uo  dish  to  the  face.  The  ear  is  large,  firmly 
attached,  generally  inclined  slightly  forward,  and  fringed  with 
fine  hair.  The  ear  should  be  quite  thin,  and  it  is  rather  more 
pointed  than  that  of  the  Large  Yorkshire.  The  Taniworth 
has  a  very  light  jowl,  and  a  light  neck  and  shoulder.  (Fig.  27.) 
The  back  and  loin  are  of  medium  wddth,  and  the  side  of  good 
length,  but  only  moderate  depth  as  compared  with  a  fat  hog. 
Quite  commonly  the  ham  is  deficient  (Fig.  28),  and  breeders 
are  making  an  effort  to  strengthen  this  point.  The  bone  is 
fairly  heavy,  and  the  leg  looks  long  compared  with  that  of  a 
fat  hog. 

According  to  the  standard  of  the  ISTational  Pig  Breeders' 
Association  of  Great  Britain,  the  Tamwortli  should  have 
"  golden-red  hair  on  a  flesh-colored  skin,  free  from  black," 
but  the  shade  of  red  varies  considerably  in  individuals  and  a 
chestnut  shade  is  quite  common.  The  color  generally  gi*ows 
darker  with  age,  and  the  color  of  some  aged  animals  is  such 
a  dark  shade  of  chestnut  that  the  casual  observer  might  easily 
mistake  it  for  a  dull  black.     (Fig.  27.) 

Origin  and  History. — The  Tamworth  is  of  English  origin, 
and  takes  its  name  from  Tamworth  in  Stafi^ordshire.  The 
l)reed  is  of  ancient  and  uncertain  origin,  no  well-authenticated 
account  of  where  it  came  from  being  available.  Originally 
it  was  an  extremely  leggy,  narrow  type  of  hog,  and  it  is  not 
clear  whether  improvement  was  effected  entirely  by  selection 
7  (97) 


98 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


or  wlR'tliti"  cro.ss-biveding  was  ivsurt*-!.!  b>.  The  Taimvorth  is 
one  (if  the  oldest  of  Kiifflisli  breeds,  Imt  it  was  not  j^iven  a 
se})arate  class  at   tlic  Ifnyal   Show  until   1^85. 

Distribution. — Taniworths  wcic  hroiijfht  to  tlie  T'nited 
States  nearly  thirty  years  ago,  but  they  have  not  made  rapid 
progress.      Possibly   the   long   snout   tends    to   prejudice    tlie 


Fio.  27. — Taniworth  boar.     An  Enpli.-li  Royal  winner. 


farmer  against  tliem.  but  the  fact  that  the  production  of  bacon 
liogs  T-eccives  scant  encouragement  in  the  Vnited  States  is  an 
important  factor  in  deferring  the  ])rogress  of  the  lireeil.  Ke])re- 
sentatives  of  the  breed  are  to  be  found  in  a  niiiuber  of  states, 
notably  in  Illinois,  KiMitucky.  Towa,  Kansas.  Texas,  Wisconsin, 
and  Ohio. 

Tamwortlis   have    made   much    more    progress    in    Canada 


THE  TAMWORTH  BREED 


99 


than  in  the  United  States,  tlitmg'h  they  arc  imt  so  nnin(n*ons 
as  the  Lars:e  Yorkshire.  Thev  are  to  be  found  in  ])ractically 
every  province  of  (^anada,  hut  Ontario  is  tlie  ])riii('i])al  centre 
for  the  breed.  Enghiml  ;mil  ( 'anachi  take  the  had  in  the 
jM'(Mluction  of  Tamworths. 

Utility. — The     Tamworth    is    especially    adapted    to    the 


Fig.   28. — Tamworth  boar,  a  Canadinn-i 


rize  winner. 


production  of  export  bacon,  or  a  class  of  bacon  which  carries 
a  larsre  proportion  of  lean  to  fat. 

In  early-maturing  qualities  it  is  similar  to  the  Large  York- 
shire, producing  a  bacon  carcass  fit  for  export  at  as  early  an 
age  as  any  other  breed,  but  for  producing  a  fat  carcass  at  an 
early  age  the  Tamworth  is  not  ?;o  well  suited  as  some  other 
breeds.        For    bacon    production,    therefore,    the    Tamworth 


100 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


matures  early,  and  it  is  from  the  bacon  stand-point  that  this 
breed  must  always  be  judged. 

There  is  a  popular  belief  that  the  Taniworth  docs  not 
make  economical  use  of  feed,  but  experimental  work  shows 
that  this  belief  is  not  Avell  founded,  and  that  the  Taniworth 
compares  very  favorably  with  other  breeds  as  an  economical 


Fio.   21). — Group  of  Tuimvorlh  fow.s. 

])n»dncer  of  meat.  T>iko  the  Large  Yorkshire,  it  is  |)n»bably 
rather  better  adapted  to  pen  feeding  than  to  pasturing,  but 
its  ability  to  stand  heavy  corn  feeding  is  practically  unknowni. 
It  is  elninied  by  its  admirers  that  the  Tamwurth  ])n)duces 
higher-class  bacon  than  any  other  breed,  but  where  it  has  come 
into  competition  with  the  Large  Yorkshire  in  dressed  carcass 
competitions  the   Large   Yorkshire   has   carried   off   the  larger 


TIIK  TAMWOirril  HKEED 


101 


share  of  the  prize  iiionov.  There  is  no  (luestioii,  however,  that 
the  Tauiworth  jtroduees  bacon  of  exceptionally  tine  (jnalitj. 
well  mixed  with  lean,  and  tine  in  the  grain.  The  Large 
Yorksliire  and  thf  Taniworth  are  the  only  strietlv  hacon  breeds 
with  whicli  we  are  familiar  in  America. 

Being  a  large  breed  with  strong  bone  (Figs.  29  and  30), 


Fio.   30. — Pair  of  'I'ani worth  sows,  winner  at  loading  Canadian  fairs. 


the  Tamworth  is  suitable  for  crossing  ni)on  finer  and  fatter 
breeds,  and  is  very  popular  for  this  purpose  where  it  is  best 
known.  The  boars  are  prepotent  to  quite  a  marked,  degree, 
and  the  sows  are  good  mothers,  being  prolific  and  good  nurses. 
The  Tamworth  Standard. — Following  is  the  standard  of 
excellence  for  Tamworths  adopted  hv  tlie  National  Pig 
Breeders'  Association  of  Great  "Britain: 


1U2  BREEDS  OF  S\\  L\E 

Volur — (.ioldfii-iL'd  liair  uii  a   Ik-sli-fdlorfd   skin,   fift'  from   black. 
^Head — Fairly  long,  snout  nioderatt'lv  Xow^  and  (|iiite  straijjht,  face  sliglitly 

dished,  wide  between  ears. 
Ears — lt;itiier    large,   with   line   frin<re,   earricd    rijrid   and    iiklined   slightly 

forward. 
Xeck — Fairly   long  and  nuisevilar.  esj)ecially   in  l)i)ar. 
Chest — Wide   and   deep. 
tShouldcrs — Fine,  slanting,  and   well   set. 

Legs — Strong  and  shapely,  witli  |il(iity  of  Ixmc  and  set   well  outside  body. 
Pasterns — Strong  and  sloping. 
Feet — Strong  and  of  fair  size. 
Back — Long  and  straight. 
Loin — Strong  and  broad. 
Tail — Set  on  high   and    well    tasselled. 
Sides — Long  and  deep. 

Ribs — Well  sprung  and  extending  well   nji  to   (lank. 
lielly — Deep,  with  .straight  under  line. 
Flank — Full  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters — Long,  wide,  and  straight  from  lii|)  to  tail. 
Hams — Broad  and  full,  well  let  down  to  lioeks. 
Coat — Abundant,  long,  straight,  and  fine. 
Action — Firm  and  free. 
Objections — Black    hair,    very    light    or    ginger    hair,    curlv    coat,    coarse 

mane,    black    spots    on    skin,    slouch    or    drooi)in<.'   siioulders,    wrinkled 

skin,  inhent  knees,  hollowness  at  back  of  shoulders. 

i;i:\iKw. 

1.  (Jive    the    jioints    of    resemblance    and    of    dillerence    between    tiie 
Taniworth    and    the   Large   Yorkshire   breeds. 
•J.  Tidl  of  tin-  standard  color  of  Tamworths. 
:?.  (Jive  the  origin  and  history  of  this  breed. 

4.  When  were  they  first  imported?     What  is  their  j)resent  distribution 
in  .Xmcrica? 

r>.    What   is   the  special    use  of   the   breed. 

C).  Why  do  swine  of  the  bacon  type  se<'in  to  mature  more  slowly  than 
those  of  the  fat  type? 

7.   What  do  experiments  show  regarding  their  economical   use  of  feed? 

5.  What  is  clainu'd  for  their  (]u;ility  of  bacon? 

I)    What  uses  are  made  of  Tamworths  in  crossing? 


CHAPTER  XII. 
THE  VICTORIA  BREED. 

Description. — The  Victoria  is  a  medium-sized  breed,  being 
similar  in  size  to  the  Berkshire.  It  has  a  rather  short  snout, 
dished  face,  and  a  medium-sized,  erect  ear,  which  is  firmly 
attached  to  the  head.  (Fig.  31.)  The  jowl  is  full,  the  neck 
short,  tlu'  shoulder  wide,  the  body  In-oad  and  deep,  and  the 
ham  well  developed.  The  legs  are  short,  and  the  bone  rather 
fine  and  of  good  quality. 

The  color  is  white,  witli  occasional  dark  spots  on  the  skin. 

Origin  and  History. — At  one  time  there  were  two  breeds 
of  Victoria  swine,  but  only  one  breed  is  now  recognized.  The 
breed  which  is  now  known  originated  in  the  hands  of  George 
F.  Davis,  Dyer,  Indiana,  and  was  formed  by  combining  the 
blood  of  the  Poland-China,  Berkshire,  Chester  White,  and 
Suffolk,  and  l)y  careful  selection  of  resulting  types  which  were 
deemed  satisfactor}-.     The  breed  had  its  origin  about  1870. 

About  1850  a  breed  known  as  the  Victoria  was  originated 
by  Colonel  F.  D.  Curtis  of  New  York  State.  It  is  said  to 
have  resulted  from  a  combination  of  Irish  Grazier,  By  field, 
Yorkshire,  and  Suffolk  blood.  This  breed  is  not  now  generally 
recognized  as  a  distinct  breed. 

Distribution. — According  to  Professor  Plumb,  the  Victoria 
is  found  mainly  in  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Illinois,  Avitii  odd 
herds  in  a  few  other  states.  For  some  reason,  the  breed  does 
not  seem  to  make  much  progress  and  is  not  at  all  widely  known. 

Utility. — The  Victoria  belongs  to  the  fat  class  of  hogs. 
There  seems  to  be  a  dearth  of  experimental  data  bearing  upon 
the  early  maturity  and  feeding  qualities  of  the  Victoria,  but 

(103) 


104 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


the  fact  that  it  has  not  gained  more  rapidly  in  popularity  would 
indicate  that  farmers  do  not  think  that  it  possesses  any  ad- 
vantages over  other  biveds.  The  cpiality  of  the  meat  is  said 
to  be  good,  and  the  breed  also  bears  a  good  reputation  for 
being  prolific.  The  value  of  the  breed  for  crossing  purj^oses 
is  not  well  known. 

Victoria   Score    Card. — Following   is   the   scale   of  points 
adopted  by  the  Victoria  Swine  Jjrccders'  Association  : 


Counts. 

Counts 

Color    .  .  . 

2 
3 

Flank     

o 

Head    .  .  .  . 

liani     . 

12 

Ears     .  .  .  . 

o 

Till!     . 

•> 

Jowl    .... 

1 

•\ 

Nock     

3 

Feet 

3 

ShouI(k'r.s 

7 

Hair     .  . 

.3 

Cirtli  aroi 

lul  heart    . 

(i 

Action     ... 

4 

Back    

12 

Svininctrv 

10 

Sides    .  ..  . 

(i 

7 

12 

Total     

Rihs    .  . 

100 

Loin     .  .  .  . 

Detailed  Description. — Color. — Wliitc,  with  occasional 
dark  spots  in  the  skin. 

Head  and  Face. —  Head  rathiT  .>inall  and  neat.  Vi\co 
medium  dished  and  smooth;  wide  between  eyes;  tapering  from 
eyes  to  nose. 

Eyes. — Medium  size;  proniiiuMit.  bright;  clear  and  lively 
in  young,  and  quiet  expression  in  aged  animals. 

Ears. — Small,  thin,  fine,  silky;  u]UMght  in  yoniig  ]>igs, 
pointing  forward  and  sliglitly  ontwanl  in  aged  animals. 

Nrrl: — "Medium  wide,  deoji,  short.  W(>11  arcluMl.  and  full 
at  top. 

Jov'J. — "NTediuni  fnll.  nicely  ronnded,  lu^at,  and  free  from 
loose,  flabby  fat. 


THE  VICTORIA  BREED 


105 


Shoulders. — Broad,  deep,  and  full,  not  higher  than  line  of 
hack,   ami   as  Avide  as  top  of  back. 

CJu^sf. — Large,  wide,  deep,  and  roomy,  with  large  girth 
back  of  shoulders. 

Back-  and  Lohu — Broad,  straight,  or  slightly  arched;  carry- 
ing same  width  from  shoulders  to  ham ;  level  and  full  at  loin, 
sometimes  slightly  higher  at  hip  than  shoulders. 


Fig.  31. — Two-year-old   \'ictoria   boar,  winner   of   many  first  prizes  in  the  United  States. 

I{i})S  and  Sides. — Ribs  well  sprung  at  top  ;  strong  and  firm  ; 
sides  deep,  full,  smooth,  and  firm ;  free  from  creases. 

Belli/  and  Flank. — Wide ;  straight  and  full ;  as  low  or 
slightly  lower  at  flank  than  at  chest.  Flank  full  and  nearly 
even  with  sides. 

Hams  and  Rump. — TTams  long;  full  and  wide;  nicely 
rounded ;   trim  and  free  from  loose  fat.     Buttocks  large  and 


106  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

full;  reaching  well  down  to  hocks.  Kunip  sli<rhtl_v  sloped  from 
end  of  loin  to  root  of  tail. 

Legs  and  Feet. — Logs  short ;  set  well  apart  and  finn ;  wide 
above  knee  and  hock,  tapering  below.  Feet  small,  finn,  and 
standing  well  np  on  toes. 

Tail. — Small;  fine  and  tapering;  nicely  curled. 

Coat. — Fine  and  silky;   evenly  covering  tlie  body. 

Size. — Boar  two  years  old  and  over  when  in  good  con- 
dition should  weigh  not  less  than  HOG  pounds;  sow  same  age 
and  coiKJitioii,  450  ])ounds.  Boar  twelve  months  old,  not 
less  tlian  300  pounds;  sows  in  good  flesh,  300  pounds.  Pigs 
5  to  6  months  old,  140  to  100  pounds. 

Action. — Easy  and  graceful,  but  (|ui('t. 

Condition. — Healthy;  skin  cloiiii.  niid  white  i>r  ]»ink  in 
color;  free  from  scurf;  flesh  firm  and  evcidy  laid  on. 

Disposl/ion. — (^niet  and  gentle. 

Disqualifications. — Colar. — Other  than  white,  or  creamy 
white,  ^\^th  occasional  dark  spots  in  skin. 

Form-. — Crooked  jaws  or  deformed  face;  crooke(l  or  di'- 
fonned  legs ;  large,  coarse,  drooping  ears. 

Condition. — Excessive  fatness;  barrenness;  deformity  in 
any  part  of  the  body. 

Pedigree. — Xot  eligible  for  record. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Dpscrilto  Victoria  swino. 

2.  Arc  thccars  (Irooj)irij:  or  <r<»<t  ?  Wliiif.  otlu-r  hrfi-ds  arr  like  tlicni 
in  this  rcspwt? 

3.  Tell  of  the  origin  and  liistory  of  this  hrocd. 

4.  Wliat  can  you  say  of  tlicir  impiilarity  ?  Wiierc  arc  thoy  mainly 
found  ? 

5.  What  is  said  of  their  vitilitvT 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
THE   CHESHIRE   BREED. 

Description. — The  Cheshire  (Fig.  32)  is  about  medium 
size,  but.  some  specimens  attain  heavy  weights.  It  is  chiimeJ 
that  the  Clieshire  weighs  well  for  its  appearance,  and  that  it 
is  a  heavier  breed  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  face  is 
slightly  dished,  and  the  ear  rather  small  and  erect.  The  bone 
is  tine  and  of  fair  quality.  The  body  is  not  noted  for  depth, 
but  usually  has  good  length,  and  the  shoulders  and  hams  are 
generally  well   developed. 

The  color  is  white.  Black  spots  on  the  skin  are  objection- 
able, but  do  not  disqualify. 

Origin  and  History. — The  Cheshire  originated  in  Jefferson 
County,  Xew  York,  and  dates  from  about  1855.  In  a  letter 
to  Mr.  F.  1).  Coburn,  ]\Ir.  J.  TI.  Sanders  of  Chicago,  who 
bred  Cheshires  for  some  years,  expresses  the  belief  that  the 
Cheshire  is  simply  a  derivative  of  the  Yorkshire.  Yorkshires 
were  brought  into  Jefferson  County  and  crossed  with  the  white 
pigs  of  the  district,  and  it  is  also  believed  that  Suffolk  blood 
entered  into  the  cond>inatioii  which  eventually  resulted  in  the 
breed  known  as  tlie  Cheshire. 

Distribution. — The  Cheshire  is  f(iuii<l  mainly  in  Xew  York 
State,  with  a  few  herds  scattered  here  and  there  in  other  states. 
It  has  made  very  slow  progress,  and  is  ])ractically  unknown 
outside  of  the   United  States. 

Types. — In  his  letter  to  Mr.  Coburn,  previously  referred 
to,  Mr.  Sanders  states  that  in  his  herd  be  has  produced  ''  all 
the  different  types  of  Yorkshire,  from  the  Large  Yorkshire 
do\\Ti  to  the  Lancashire  Short-face."     As  bred  at  present,  the 

(107) 


108 


BREEDS  OF  SWIXE 


type   ])roljablj   docs   not   vary   in    C'hesliiivs   any   more   tlian    in 
other  brcvds. 

Utility. — 'J'he  Cheshire,  as  generally  seen,  belongs  more  to 
tlie  fat  than  to  the  bacon  elass,  thongli  it  sliould  nut  l)e  ditli- 
eult  to  deveh>])  it  into  a  fairly  good  iKicon  breed.  It  appears 
to  be  a  good  feeder,  and  its  meat  is  admitted  li>  be  of  excellent 
qnality.     The  sows  are  fairly  prolific,   and   the   boars  apjiear 


Kiii.   ;i2. — ("hcshire  harrow. 

to  ])e  ])r('i)otent,  bnt  very  little  is  known  regarding  their  valne 
for  crossing. 

The  Cheshire  Score  Card. — Following  is  the  standard  of 
excellence  and  scale  of  ])oints  adopted  by  the  riieshire  Swine 
Breeders'  Association : 

Counts. 
Head — Short  to   inodium    in    Iciifrtli,   short   in    proportion   to  length   of 

body     8 

Face — Somewhat   dished   and    w  idc  Ix'twcen   tlie  eyes 8 

Jowl — Medium   in  fulness    3 


THE  CHESHIRE  BREED  109 

Ears — Small,  line,  erect,  and  in  old  animals  slightly  pointing  forward.  .5 

Xcck — yhort  and   h:  oad    3 

Shoulders — Bioad,   full   and   deep G 

Girth  around  Heart    8 

Pack — Ix)ng,  broad  and  straight  nearly  to  root  of  tail 10 

Sides — Deep   and   full ;    nearly   straight  on   bottom   line 7 

Flank — Well  back  and  low  down,  making  jlank  girth  nearly  equal  to 

heart   girth    3 

Hams — Broad  and  nearly  straight  with  back  and   running  well  down 

towards  hock 10 

Legs — Small  and  slim,  set  wi'll  a|>aii.  suiiporting  body  well  on  toes..  10 

Tail — Small,   slim,   ami   tapering 3 

Hair — Fine,   medium   in  thickness  and   ipiantity 3 

Color — White,  any  colored  hairs  to  disqualify 2 

Skin — Fine  and  plial)le,  small  blue  spots  objectionable  l)ut  allowable  3 
Symmctri/ — Animal    well    projjortioned,    handsome,    and    stylish,    and 

when    grown    and    well    fattened    should    dress    from    400    to    (iOO 

pounds     8 

Total    100 

REVIEW. 

1.  Descril)e  Cheshire  swine. 

2.  Tell  of  the  origin  of  the  breed. 

3.  Where  are  they  now  found? 

4.  Tell   of   their   variation,   and    tlieir   stability   as   compared   to  other 
breeds. 

5.  Tell  of  their  type,  and  (juality  of  meat. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
THE   ESSEX   BREED. 

Description. — Tho  Essex  belongs  to  the  small  breeds,  bciiiir 
decidedly  siiiallcr  tlian  siu-li  breeds  as  the  I>erkshii-e  or  I'uhind- 
('hiiia.  Tho  suoiit  is  short,  the  face  sliiz:htl_v  dished,  the  fore- 
head broad,  and  the  ears  small,  tine,  and  en'ct,  bnt  iiielin(Ml 
to  droop  slio-htly  with  ns^o.  The  jowl  is  heavy,  the  neck  verv 
sliort.  the  back  broad,  and  tiie  shonlders  and  hams  larirelv 
deve]o|te<l.  The  Icii's  are  verv  short,  and  the  bone  tine,  and  the 
pi.c:  as  a  whole  is  compact,  smooth,  short,   thick,   and  elnmky. 

The  color  is  all  black,  no  white  beinc;  admissible,  (  V'\<j:.  ')'•).) 

Origin  and  History. — The  Essex  is  an  English  breed  and 
takes  its  name  from  the  county  of  Essex,  where  it  was  tirst 
known,  riie  original  Kssex  ])ig  wa'^  a  coarse,  long-legged,  hai'd- 
feeding  animal,  generally  black  and  white  in  color.  In  1^.')0 
Lord  Western  im])ortfd  black  Xea])olitan  ])igs  from  Italy  and 
crossed  them  with  the  Essex,  effecting  a  very  nuirked  imj)rove- 
ment.  It  is  claiiiKd  that  in  the  course  of  time  Lord  Western's 
|)igs  became  somewhat  weak  in  constitntion  and  lacking  in 
fecumlity. 

Soon  after  Lord  W(^steru  commenced  im]">roving  the  Essex 
])igs,  one  of  his  tenants,  name<l  Fisher  IlobU's,  commenced 
breeding  the  Essex-T^eapolitan.  and  e\"olv( d  a  strain  sujierior 
to  the  ])igs  bred  by  Lord  Western.  The  strain  bi-ed  by  Ilobbes 
gained  the  name  of  Improved  Essex,  and  acquire<l  great  popu- 
larity. The  Improved  Essex  was  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  large  numl)ers  at  one  time,  but  importations  have 
practically  ceased. 

(110) 


THE  ESSEX  BREED 


111 


Distrihuiion. — It  is  not  largely  represented  in  the  United 
States,  bnt  it  is  to  bo  fonnd  scattered  here  and  there  in  quite 
a  number  of  strifes.  A  few  herds  exist  in  Canada,  and  the 
breed  is  to  Ix?  found  in  Australia,  iu  sevi^'al  Kiii-(»i)caii  count ries, 
and.  of  course,  in  England. 

Types. — To  meet  the  modern  demand,  many  breeders  of 


Fia.  33. — IniprijscJ  liiaacx  boar,  a  gouJ  njijrcacnlalivo  ui  tlie  luodurn  type  of  tlic  biiud. 


Essex  swine  are  striving  to  develop  a  type  with  more  size, 
heavier  bone,  and  greater  length.  Judging  by  some  of  the 
exhibits  at  fairs  during  recent  years,  this  eifort  is  meeting 
with  some  success,  and  Essex  pigs  are  to  be  seen  which  give 
more  promise  of  present-day  utility  tlian  the  older  type. 

Utility. — The  Essex   belongs   to   the   (piick-maturing  kind 
and  is  easily  kept  fat.     Its  lack  of  size  prevents  it  from  be- 


112  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

coming  i)opnlar  with  the  general  fanner,  aiid  it  is  perhaps 
better  suited  to  the  requirements  of  the  cottager,  who  wishes 
to  keep  a  pig  with  a  minimum  outlay  for  feed.  lie  does  not 
have  so  many  pounds  of  pork,  but  he  has  a  fat  hog  with  a 
small  outlay.  It  has  never  been  demonstrated  that  the  Essex 
requires  less  feed  for  a  pound  of  gain  than  other  breeds,  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  an  economical  producer  of  meat. 
The  meat  is  fine-grained,  but  excessively  fat. 

The  Essex  is  suitable  for  crossing  upon  extremely  coarse 
breeds,  and  in  the  past  it  played  an  important  part  in  the 
improvement  of  other  breeds.  At  present  there  is  less  need 
for  this  sort  of  work,  and  the  field  of  usefulness  for  the  Essex 
has  been  greatly  restricted.  It  is  being  used,  however,  for 
improving  the  Razor-back  of  the  South. 

The  Essex  is  not  regarded  as  i)rolific,  but  a  great  deal 
depends  upon   how  the   sows   are  managed. 

Essex  Score  Card. — Following  is  the  scale  of  points  adopted 
by  the  American  Essex  Association : 

Counts. 

Color— mack     2 

Head — Small,  broad,  and  face  dislied 3 

Kars — Fine,  erect,  slightly  droo|)iii}^  witli  aj^o    2 

Jowl — Full  and  neat   1 

]SVcA-— Sbort.  full,  well  arelied 3 

SJiouUlcrs — Broad   and   deep    7 

(Jirlh  around  Heart   0 

Back — Straight,   broad.   an<l    level 12 

Sides — Dt'ep  and  full 6 

Itibs — 'Well  .sprunji   7 

Loin — Broad  and  strong   1- 

/.VoHfc— Well    let   <lo\vn    '-i 

Ham — Broad,  full,  and  dee|» 12 

Tail — ^r<'diuni.   fino.   and   curled    2 

Legs — Fine,   straight,   and   tiipering    3 


THE  ESSEX  BREED  113 

w,           ^       ,.                                                                                                                        Counts. 
Ffcf— Small    ;j 

Hair — Fine  ami  silky,  free  from  bristles 3 

Action — Easy  and  graceful    4 

Symmetry — Adaptation  of  the   several  parts  to  each  other 10 

Total ion 

REVIEW. 

1.  Characterize  Essex  swine  as  to  size. 

2.  Give  a  general  description  ef  tksni. 

3.  Where  did  the  breed  originate? 

4.  Tell  of  the  eflort^  to  improve  the  breed. 

5.  Where  is  the  breed  mostly  found? 

6.  WTiat  useful  features  have  Esse^;  swine? 


CHAPTER  XV. 
THE    SUFFOLK    BREED. 

Description. — Tlie  Suffolk  is  a  small  br(x-J.  The  face  is 
dished,  the  snout  small  aud  very  short,  the  ears  short,  small, 
thin,  upright,  soft,  aiid  silky,  the  neck  very  short,  and  the 
body  thick,  short,  and  smooth,  set  upon  very  short,  fine-boned 
legs. 

The  hair  sliould  be  fine  and  silky,  and  of  a  pale  yellowish- 
white  color.  The  skin  is  of  a  pinkish  shade,  and  should  be 
entirely  clear  of  dark  spots. 

Origin  and  History. — The  Suffolk  is  of  the  same  origin  as 
the  Small  Yorkshire,  being  an  off-shoot  of  the  Small  White 
English  breed.  There  is  no  such  breed  as  a  white  Suffolk 
recognized  in  England,  but  the  name  Suffolk  is  sometimes 
applied  locally  to  the  Small  Black  breed,  of  which  the  Essex 
is  a  representative. 

Distribution. — The  Suffolk  was  brought  to  the  United 
States  many  years  ago,  but  it  has  not  made  much  progr(>ss. 
It  is  found  mainly  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  but  herds  are 
not  numerous.     Tn  Panada  the  Im^ed  has  nearly  disappeared. 

Utility. — What  is  said  regarding  Small  Ynrkshin^  und,^r 
this  heading  applies  to  the  Suffolk  as  well,  since  tlie  breeds 
are  vej-y  similar.      rSee  pp.  117-118.) 

Suffolk  Score  Card.- — Following  is  the  scale  of  points 
adopted  by  the  American  Suffolk  Association : 

Counts. 

Color— Wiute 2 

Head — Small,  broad,  and  faci'  dished .3 

Kars — Fin*',  erect,  slifjhtly  drooping  with  age 2 

Joicl — Full  and  neat  1 

(114) 


THE  SUFFOLK  BREED  115 

Counts. 

Xcck — Short,  full,  and  slightly  arched 3 

tShottldcrs — Broad  and  deep   7 

Girth  around  Heart    6 

Back — Straight,  broad,  level    12 

Sides — DtH'p  and  full    6 

Ribs — Well    sprung    7 

Loin — Broad    and   strong    12 

Flank — Well    let   down    2 

Ham — Broad,  full,  deep    12 

Tail — Medium,  fine,  and  curled 2 

Lcfis — Fine,  straight,  and  tapering    3 

Feet — Small 3 

Hair — Fine  and  silky,  free  from  bristles 3 

Action — Fasy  and  graceful    4 

l^ijmuirtry — Adaptation  of  tlie  several    j)arts  to  each  other 10 

Total    100 

RKVIKW. 

1.  Describe  the  Suffolk  breed. 

2.  What  is  thought  to  be  the  origin  of  the  breed? 

3.  Where  is  it  mainly  found  in  America? 

4.  To  what  breed  is  this  one  most  similar? 

5.  Can  you  give  any  reason  why  this  breed  is  not  popular? 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE  SMALL  YORKSHIRE  BREED. 

Description. — Tlio    Sninll    Yorksliiro   iiinv    bo   toniicd   the 
smallest  breed   in   the   United   States.      It   has   a   very  short. 


Fid.   34. — Small   Wliilc  now,  fir.'-t  prize  winner. 

lurnc'(l-up  snout,  wide  face,  small,  erect  ears,  heavv  jowl,  aJid 
a  very  short  neck.  The  Ix>dy  is  short,  thiek,  deep,  and  smooth, 
and  the  legs  are  very  short  and  v<'ry  fine  in  the  bnne.  (Fip:s.  34 
and  35.) 

The  eolor  is  Avhite,  and  the  hair  is  abundant  but  fine. 

Origin  and   History. — The   Small   Yorkshire  comes  from 

(110) 


THE  SMALL  YORKSHIRE  BREED 


117 


England,  wlii'i-e  it.  goes  by  tbt'  name  of  "  Small  Wliilc,"  the 
name  "  Small  Yorkshire "  being  of  AmericaJi  orijiin.  The 
breed  is  belii'ved  to  be  of  Chinese  origin,  but  UHMliticd  by  the 
metliods  of  English  breeders.  Varions  types  and  strains  of 
Small  Whites  have  Ix^en  bred  in  England,  bnt  at  ]iresent  they 
are  all  classed  as  one  breed. 


Fu 


...^U.-.h  Royal  Show. 


Dhtrihution. — The  Small  Yorkshire  was  brought  to  the 
United  States  alwnt  ISfiO,  but  its  progress  has  been  slow. 
Small  herds  are  to  be  found,  mainly  in  the  East,  but  the  breed 
does  not  attract  much   attention. 

Utility. — There  does  not  seem  to  he  any  very  important 
place  for  the  Small  Yorkshire  to  fill  in  America.  The  breed 
matures  earlv  and  fattens  easily,  but  produces  excessively  fat 


118  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

meat.  Like  the  Essex,  it  is  probably  most  suitable  for  the 
cottager  who  wants  a  pig  that  can  be  matured  witli  a  small 
amount  of  feed.  There  is  no  American  breeil  that  reijuiivs 
crossing  with  a  breed  like  the  Small  Yorkshire,  unless  it  is 
the  ^^  Razorback,"  and  the  Essex  seems  ratlier  better  adapted 
to  this  pur])()se.  as  its  skin  will  stand  the  hot  sun  of  the  South 
better  than  tliat  r»f  a  white  breed.  The  Small  Yorkshire  is 
not  not<(l  for  fecundity,  and,  unless  some  unforeseen  con- 
ditions arise,  the  breed  seems  destined  to  gradually  disa])]>ear. 
Small  Yorkshire  Score  Card. — Following  is  tlie  description 
and  scale  of  ]>oint-s  for  Small  Yorkshires  adopted  by  the 
American  Yorkshire  Club: 

Counts. 
General  Outline — Wide  and  deep  in  proportion  to  the  lenjrth,  straight 

al)ovt'  and  ludow.  and  ssliort  in  head,  neck,  body,  and  limbs .l 

Outline   of   Head — Short,    abrupt,    inclining   to   fine,   and    possessed   of 

much  dish  and  downward  spxing  under  the  jaws 4 

Forehead  and  Foil — Wide    1 

Fye — Medium  size;   clear  and   bright 1 

Joicl — Large,  smooth,  and  carried  well  back  toward  the  neck 1 

Snout — Short,    turning   ui)ward   somewhat,   with   a    deep    indenture   or 

curve  immediately  above   it 1 

Ear — Small,   thin,   erect,   and    inclining   slightly    forward    ratlur    t!ian 

backward   at  the  tips 1 

\eck — Short,   wi<le.   and   deep,   the   width   slightly    increasing  towards 

the    shoulders     ;? 

Outline  of  liody — Short,  broad,  d«H'p,  and  straight  above,  below,  and 

on  the  sides 7 

liaek — -Very   broad,  of  even  width   and   straight   from   withers   to   tail 

head    10 

Shoulder — I^arge,  smoothly  and  evenly  developed,  and  blending  per- 
fectly  with   neck   and   crops    (i 

.lr»n  and  Thigh — Moderately  wide,  tapering  nicely  down  and  inclining 

to   short    2 

Brisket — Wide  and  on  level  with  under  line 3 

Side — Deep,   thick    in    everj'    part,    straight   and    even    from    shoulder 

to  hip    8 

Ribs — Widely  and  deeply  sprung 6 


THE  SMALL  YORKSHIRE  BREED  119 

Counts. 
Heart   and   Flank    Girth — Excellent   in    proportion   to   the   length    of 

body  and  about  equal    8 

Hind  Quarters — Relatively  long;   broad  in  every  part  and  deep,  with 

but  little  lowering  toward  the  tail  head 5 

Ham — Large;    well    let    down    at    thigli    and    twist    and    inclined    to 

straight    behind 10 

Tioist — Well  down  and  full   1 

Tail — Fine,  short,  and   inclined  to  curl 1 

Legs — Short,  fine  rather  than  coarse,  strong,  straight,  and  placed  well 

apart  5 

Hair — Abundant,   fine,   even    in   quality 4 

Slin — Smooth  and  white  and  free  from  creases  and  scales 2 

Color — White  on  every  part 1 

Movement — Gentle  and  easy  but  not  sluggish 5 

Total    100 

REVIEW. 

1.  Name  three  breeds  which   are  considered   small. 

2.  Describe  the  small  Yorkshires. 

3.  ^M1at    is   their   English    name? 

4.  Tell   of  their   introduction  to  the  United  States  and  their  present 
popularity. 

5.  Of  what  use  is  this  breed? 

6.  \Vhy  is  the  breed  not  a  popular  one? 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
THREE  MINOR   BREEDS. 

Three  breeds  of  minor  importance  in  America  are  the 
]\Iiile-foot  hop:,  Large  Black  Pig,  and  the  Middle  White  or 
Middle  Yorkshire. 

MULE- FOOT    JIOG. 

Description. — A  marked  ix'ciiliarity  of  tlie  ^Iiilc-foot  hog 
is  its  solid  liddf,  ;iiid  frmn  this  pcmliai'  feature  the  hrei'd  takes 
its  name.  In  i;"eneral  conformation,  it  is  claimed  that  the 
.Mnle-loot  hog  is  between  tlie  fat  tyj)e  and  the  bacon  tv})e,  bnt 
it  is  not  noted  for  great  length  of  side. 

I'he  color  is  black,  bnt  white  points  i\ro  admissible.  More 
white  tlian  black  is  a  disqnalification,  and  any  considerable 
amonnt  of  white  is  regarded  as  objectionable. 

Origin  and  History. — The  National  ]\Inle-foot  llog  Record 
Association,  which  has  its  office  in  liidianajiolis,  has  issned 
the  following  statement:  "Up  to  the  present  date,  the  Mule- 
foot  hog  is  a  hog  without  an  authentic  histors'.  Tfnmors  and 
reports  offer  Denuuirk,  Holland,  South  Africa,  ^fexico.  South 
America,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands  as  the  conntiw  of  his 
bii-th.  .  .  .  Reports  are  so  contradictorv  that  this  Association 
cannot,  withont  further  research,  endorse  any  of  them.  Every 
eifort  will  bo  made  by  the  Association  to  discover  the  origin  of 
the  Mnle-foot  hog,  and  to  furnish  its  friends  with  a  true  and 
complete  history." 

Dififrihiifion. — So  far,  animals  of  this  breed  are  not  nnmei> 
ons  nor  widely  distribnted.  Indiana,  "Nfissonri,  Arkansas, 
Texas,  and  Louisiana  are  probably  the  principal  states  for  the 

(120) 


THREE  MINOR  BREEDS  121 

breed,  but  the  breed  is  not  largely  represented  in  any  state 
as  yet. 

Utility. — The  Xational  ^lule-foot  Hog  Record  Association 
makes  the  following  claims  for  the  breed : 

"  As  to  the  special  qualifications  and  fine  points  of  the 
!Mule-foot  hog,  we  know  it  to  have  greater  vitality  than  any 
other  breed  in  the  United  States.  We  have  never  known  a 
full-blood  Mule-foot  hog  to  luno  hog  cholera.  It  is  an  easy 
feeder,  develops  early  and  rapidly,  is  in  strong  demand  on 
the  market  at  a  premium.  .  .  .  The  sows  are  good,  gentle 
mothers  and  raise  large  litters  of  J'igs,  wliicli,  if  turned  out, 
will  hustle  for  a  living,  or  they  will  grow  fat  and  thrive,  ])aying 
big  i-('turns.  under  good  care  and  attention." 

It  nuist  be  remembered  that  the  claims  set  forth  above 
are  made  by  admirers  of  the  breed.  The  Arkansas  Station  tested 
!Mule-foot  hogs  with  virulent  cholera  germs,  and  found  them 
quite  as  susceptible  to  the  disease  as  hogs  of  other  breeds. 

LARGE    BLACK    PIG. 

Description. — The  Large  Black  is  a  large  breed,  all  black 
in  color,  and  possessing  very  large  drooping  ears.  In  general 
conformation  it  approaches  the  bacon  type,  having  a  good 
length  of  side,  medium  width  of  back  and  shoulder,  a  rather 
light  neck  and  jowl,  ami  fairly  heavy  bone.  (Figs.  36  and  87.) 

Origin  and  History. — The  Large  Black  pig  is  the  latest 
aildition  to  the  recognized  pure  breeds  of  swine  in  Great 
Britain.  The  origin  of  the  breed  is  not  well  kuo^\^l,  but  it 
has  been  bred  for  a  great  many  years  in  the  east  and  south  of 
England. 

Dis-frihufioti. — The  Large  Black  is  hardly  known  outside 
of  England,  and  is  not  widely  distributed  even  in  England, 


122 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


iK'iiii;'  coiitiiK'd  iiKiinlv  to  the  southern  part  of  the  eoniitrv. 
Sonio  years  aijo  ii'preseiitatives  (»f  the  breed  were  hronght 
to  tlie  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa,  Canada,  hut  did 
not  prove  very  satisfaetorv.  At  ])resent  the  breed  is  ])rae- 
tically  not  rejiresented  on  tlio  American  continent. 

Utility. — The  main  claims  for  the  Larg-e  Black  are  its  bacon 


Fio.  36. — ^I.urKe  Black  sow,  winner  of  first  prize. 


qualities,  its  fecundity,  and  its  value  as  a  scaveni!;t'r.  Its 
bacon  is  hiirhly  esteemed  in  England,  contain inj;,  as  it  d<M's, 
a  larg^e  jx'rceiitasi'o  of  lean.  It  is  wortliy  of  n(»t<',  liowcvcr, 
that  at  Ottawa  the  l>acon  of  the  Larije  I'laek  was  not  ccpuil 
to  that  of  tlie  Laro:e  Yorkshire  or  Taniwortli.  The  sows  are 
excellent  nurses,  and  the  breed  is  regarded  as  a  first-class 
farmer's  l)re('(l   in    England, 


THREE  MINOR  lUlEEDS 


123 


MIDDI.K    WIIITK    (. MIDDLE    YOKKSIIIKe). 

Description. — Tlic  Middle  White,  as  the  iiaiiie  iiii])lies,  is 
iTiteniiediiite  in  size  between  the  Large  \Vliite  and  the  Small 
\\liito.  It  is  recDgnizcd  in  England  as  a  distinct  l)roed,  bnt 
it  is  a  difficnlt  breed  to  describe  on  account  of  its  variations. 


Fio.   37. — Large    I'lack   hoar,   a  Show   winner 


Some  representatives  of  the  breed  might  easily  pass  as  Large 
^^^lites,  and  from  this  extreme  they  shade  down  nearly  all 
the  way  to  the  Small  White  type.  There  is  little  doubt  tJiat 
many  so-called  Large  Whit<'  pigs  carry  some  ^liddh'  White 
blood,  and  that  many  ^fiddle  Whites,  or  pigs  containing  a 
large  percentage  of  ^fiddle  AMiite  blood,  have  been  brought 
to  America  and  passed  as  Large  \\liit€S.     Generally  speaking, 


124 


UREEDS  OF  SWINE 


they  are  smaller  lliaii  the  Lai-.uc  Whites,  have  a  shorter  side, 
shorter  leg,  finer  lM)iie,  and  a  heavier  neek  and  jowl.  They 
nsually  have  a  slidrlcr  smmt  than  the  l.arp-  White,  and  have 
more  dish  in  snont  and  face.  They  hchuii;'  to  the  fat  ty])e  of 
horr.    (  Fi.u's.   :5S,   ;3!>,   and   40.) 

Origin. — The  ^Middle   White  originated   from   a  cross  he- 


Fiu.   ;j.S.  —  Midiiiu  NVliilc  sow.     A  l.siiical  eixiiiiiun  of  tlic  brceil. 

tween  the  Large  and  Small  White  lireeds.  Even  at  the  present, 
])igs  may  ap])ear  in  Large  White  litters  which  are  classed  by 
their  breeders  as  jNFiddle  Whites,  so  tliat  it  sometimes  happens 
that  Large  Whites  and  Middh'  Whites  may  come  from  tlie 
same  litter,  especially  in  those  herds  where  ]\Iiddle  ^^^lito 
blood  is  occasionally  nsed  to  refim^  the  Large  "\Miite.  Some- 
times  ^Afiddle   AMiites   are   prodnced   by   one    ero^   of   Small 


THREE  MINOR  BREEDS 


125 


^Ybite  ii[)ou   Large  White,  ami  animals  jn'oduced  in  tliis  way 
should  scarcely  \)e  reoarded  as  a  distinct  hreod. 

Distribution. — Tlic  Middle  \\'hile  is  unknown  outsido  of 
England,  its  native  country,  and,  if  any  have  been  brought 
to  America,  they  were  introduced  under  the  name  of  Large 
Yorksbire. 


Via.  M.  —  Mi(Klle   White  boar,  an  EnRlish  Royal  .Show  champion. 


Utility. — The  utility  of  tbe  Middle  White  is  necessarily 
limited.  Tbo  practice  of  crossing,  followed  by  many  brawlers, 
has  told  against  tbe  usefulness  of  tbe  breed,  ^liddle  Whites 
wliieb  have  been  l)r('d  j)ure  for  a  number  of  generations  woidd 
no  doubt  prove  quite  satisfactory,  but  so  many  of  them  possess 
recent  crosses  of  other  blood  that  the  breed  as  a  whole  lacks 
prepotency  jyid  trueness  to  tA7)e.     The  mixing  of  ^liddle  ^Mlite 


126  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

bltxjd  with  that  uf  Large  White,  as  practised  by  niaiij  English 
breeders,  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned.  A  so-called  Large 
Yorkshii-e  bdiir  ])r(idu('ed  in  this  way  may  look  more  attractive 
to  tlio  inexperienced  breeder  of  Large  Vorksliires  than  a  pure 
Large  Yorkshire,  but  he  makes  a  very  unsatisfactory  sire. 
Breeders  of  Large  Yorkshires  soon  leani  to  avoid  boars  showing 
anv  evidence  of  Middle  White  blood. 


FlO.   40. — Pair  of   NUtldlr   Whito  Imrnuvs,  prize  winners. 

KEY  TO  THE  BREEDS  OF  SWTXK. 

i''()r    ii.sc    of    hc^^i unci's    in    niakiiij:   (piick    ri'c()i.Miiti()ii. 
IIooFH  CLOVEN    (including'  all  hut  one  broi'd). 

A.  Color  nil  Mack. 

B.  Fat  type;  ears  small  and  erect Essex 

BB.  Bacon  type;  ears  largo  and  drooping Large  Black 


THREE  MINOR  BREEDS  127 

AA.  Color   >iu).stly   blaik,  witli   soiiir  white. 

J{.  \\  liitf   in  form  of  lu'lt  or  liaiul  aroiiiul  body  and 

fore    legs    IIami'.siiikk 

lili.  Wliite  markings  on   face,  feet,  etc. 

C.  Face  dished;   ears  erect Bekkshikk 

CC.  Face  straigiit;   ear   tips  drooped  ...  I'ola.nd-Cii  in  a 

A.A.\.  Color  red  or  mostly  so. 

15.  Fat  tyi>e;   heavy  jowl;   snont  medium   in  length 

Duroc-Jeksky 

lili.  IJacon    type;    very    light    jowl;    snout    long    and 

straigiit     Tamwoktu 

\AAA.  Color  white  or  nearly  so. 

B.  Ears  drooped;  face  straight Chester  White 

BB.  Ears  erect,  except  in  a  few  wlien  old ;  face  disiied 
or  snout  turned  up. 

C.  Bacon  type;  adults  large,  sides  long,  jowl 

not    fat    Large    Yorkshire 

CC.  J'at  type;    sides   not   long,   jowls   lleshy. 

D.  Occasional    black    spots    on    skin 

under  the   wliite   hair Vktokia 

DD.  Hair  soft,  silky,  yellowish  wliite; 
skin,     pink,     no     dark     s])ots ; 

breed    small    Sukp'OLK 

DDD.  Black  skin  spots  few  or  none: 
legs  long;  snout  straigiit,  fact- 
only  slightly  dished ;   depth  of 

hody   not   great Cuksiiiuk 

DDDD.  Skin  and  hair  white;  snout  short 
and  uj)turned;  legs  short;  face 
much  dished;  good  depth  of 
body. 

E.  Adults     smallest     of     all 

breeds    

Small  White.  Small  YoRKsirtRR 
EE.  Adults   medium    in    size.  . 

^fiDDLE  White 

Hoofs  solid   (one  breed  only) Mule  Foot 


1 28  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

SIZE  OF   BllEKUS. 

Very  large — ■Tamwortli,  Large  Yorksliire,  Large  Black. 
Medium  large — lierkahire,  Cliester  Wliite,  Poland-China,  Duroc-Jersey. 
Medium — llampsiiire,   Chesiiire,  Victoria,   .Middle   White,   Mule-foot    (t) 
Small — Sullolk,  Essex,  Small   'Surksiiire. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Describe  the  Mule-foot  hog. 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  origin  of  the  breed? 

3.  Where  is  the  breed  now  found? 

4.  What  are  the  special  claims  for  the  breed? 

5.  Describe  the  Large  Black  breed. 

6.  In  wliat  country  was   it   first  known   as   a  distinct  breed? 

7.  What  is  said  of  its  nresent  distribution? 

8.  What  is  claimed  for  the  breed? 

9.  Describe  the  "  Middle  White  "  breed. 

10.  What  was  their  origin? 

11.  Where  are  they  now  found? 

12.  Of  what  use  are  they? 


PART  IV 

RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN 
S^VINE  FEEDING 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
MISCELLANEOUS  INVESTIGATIONS. 

It  is  out  of  the  question  to  review  in  detail  all  the  work 
of  experiment  stations  in  swine  feeding,  but  there  are  certain 
phases  of  the  work  Avhich  niaj  be  dealt  with  profitably  in  a 
somewhat  general  way.  The  problems  which  face  the  swine 
feeder  are  numerous,  and  the  experiment  stations  have  been 
working  for  years  to  find  solutions  for  some  of  them.  To 
solve  any  problem  in  stock  feeding  is  a  tedious  matter,  because 
animals  differ  so  much  individually  in.  their  ability  to  utilize 
feed,  and  it  requires  many  rejietitions  and  the  employment  of 
large  numbers  of  animals  to  answer  an  apparently  simple 
que'stion.  Great  care  is  necessary,  therefore,  in  interpreting 
the  results  of  live-stock  experiments,  and  it  will  not  do  to 
draw  general  conclusions  where  only  a  limited  amount  of  work 
has  been  done. 

IXFLUENCE  OF  FEF.D  UPON  THE  30DY  OF  THE  PIG. 

In   his  excellent  book,    "  Feeds   and   Feeding,"    Professor 
Henry   gives    an    account   of   work   done   along   this    line    by 
Sanboni  at  the  ^Missouri  Agricultural   College,  Henry  at  the' 
Wisconsin   Experiment   Station,    Shelton   in   Kansas,   Duggar 
in  Alabama,  and  Fortier  in  France. 

Com,  which  is  the  standard  hog  feed  of  the  United  States, 
is  a  feed  rich  in  carbohydrates,  or  fat-forming  constituents, 
but  rather  low  in  protein,  or  muscle-forming  constituents.  It 
is  also  low  in  ash.  or  bone-forming  material.  The  question 
arose,  therefore,  whether  a  feed  such  as  corn  would  not  have  a 

(isi: 


132        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

tendency  to  produce  more  fat  in  the  body  of  a  hog  tlian  would 
feeds  which  contain  a  higher  percentage  of  protein  and  ash. 
Without  going  into  details,  it  may  be  said  that  com  was  fed 
in  opposition  to  mixtures  containing  such  feeds  as  dried  blood, 
wheat  middlings,  peas,  skim-milk,  bran,  and  cow-peas,  which 
are  feeds  much  richer  than  corn  in  protein. 

Results. — The  methods  employed  in  the  investigation 
varied  somewhat,  but  the  general  results  were  as  follows: 

1.  The  pigs  fed  the  protein-rich  ration  generally  dressed 
a  somewhat  lower  percentage  of  their  live  weight  than  those 
fed  the  corn  ration. 

2.  In  nearly  every  case  the  pigs  fed  the  protein-rich  ration 
had  the  largest  quantity  of  blood,  and  in  every  case  they  had 
heavier  livers  than  the  others.  Their  kidneys  were  also  heavier, 
as  a  rule,  though  there  were  some  exceptions. 

3.  In  the  Wisconsin  and  Kansas  exp'rimeiits,  the  tender- 
loin muscles  were  removed  and  weighed,  and  in  both  cases 
these  were  heavier  in  the  case  of  the  protein-fed  pigs.  The 
tenderloin  muscle  is  an  indication  of  the  amount  of  Iran 
throughout  the  carcass,  and  hence  it  was  demonstrated  that 
the  carcasses  of  the  protein-fed  pigs  contained  nmre  lean  tliau 
the  others. 

4.  As  a  rule,  the  corn-fed  ])igs  gave  more  leaf-lard  than  the 
others. 

.^.  At  tlie  Wisconsin  and  Kansas  stations,  the  breaking 
strength  of  the  thigh-bones  was  tested  by  a  machine  designed 
for  such  purposes,  and  in  ever\'  case  the  bones  from  the  pigs 
fed  the  mixed  ration  proved  stronger  than  those  of  the  corn-fed 
pigs,  the  difference  being  as  higb  as  32  per  cent  in  one  trial. 

Limitations. — Though  tlie  experiments  described  demon- 
strate very  clearly  that  it  is  possible  to  modify  the  carcass  of 
the  pig  by  a  judicious  selection  of  feeds,  we  must  not  assume 


MISCELLANEOUS  INVESTIGATIONS  133 

that  lean  meat  or  fat  can  be  developed  to  any  extent  which 
the  feeder  may  desire.  Nature  has  set  a  limit  in  this  con- 
nection, and  what  may  be  accomplished  by  the  feeder  in  the 
way  of  developing  lean  meat  cannot  go  beyond  a  certain  point. 
The  theory  that  any  bi-cetl  of  hogs  can  bo  fed  in  such  a  way 
as  to  produce  choice  bacon  for  the  English  nuirket  is  not  borne 
out  by  these  or  any  otlier  experiments,  nor  by  the  experience 
of  practical  breeders  who  really  understand  the  demands  of 
the  market. 

.-1  peculiar  feature  of  swine  is  their  tendency  to  develop 
fat.  If  the  very  best  specimens  of  the  bacon  type  are  fed 
largely  upon  corn,  they  quickly  assume  the  fat  or  lard  type, 
and  in  one  or  two  generations  of  such  treatment  the  tendency 
to  become  shorter  in  side  and  thicker  in  body  becomes  so 
firmly  fixed  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  change  them  back  to  the 
bacon  type  again  under  any  system  of  breeding  and  feeding. 
On  tlie  other  hand,  breeders  of  bacon  hogs  know  that  it  re- 
quires careful  selection  and  feeding  to  maintain  the  type. 
Even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  there  is  a  tendency 
for  the  bacon  type  to  change  gradually  in  the  direction  of  the 
fat  type,  unless  care  is  exercised  in  selection.  It  is  safe  to  say, 
therefore,  that  it  is  easier  to  increase  the  proportion  of  fat 
in  a  hog's  carcass  than  it  is  to  increase  the  proportion  of  lean, 
and  that  the  extent  to  which  die  lean  may  be  increased  by 
the  character  of  the  feed  is  very  limited  and  is  fixed  by  the 
individuality  of  the  animal.  Further,  any  attempt  to  increase 
the  amount  of  lean  through  feeding  must  be  started  when  the 
pig  is  very  young  in  order  to  be  successful. 

Causes  of  Soft  Bacon. — In  the  manufacture  of  ''  Wiltshire 
sides  ''  Canadian  packers  have  experienced  a  great  deal  of 
difficulty  with  sides  turning  soft  in  the  process  of  curing.  In 
a  soft  side  the  fat  is  soft  and  spongy,  and  sometimes  the  lean 


134         RESULTS  OF  EXPEHliMEXTS  IN  S\\  L\E  FEEDING 

is  affected.  A  really  soft  side  is  practically  worthless,  and 
even  a  slight  degree  of  tenderness  detracts  very  seriously  from 
the  value  of  the  haeon. 

The  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Guelph,  and  the  Central 
Experimental  Fann,  Ottawa.  Canada,  have  conducted  ex- 
haustive ex])crinients  in  fonnection  with  tlu-  causes  of  soft 
hacon,  and  folliiwing  an-  the  j»rin('i])al  ]K)ints  brought  out  in 
the  investigation : 

1.  Lack  of  Maiurity. — Generally  speaking,  the  more  im- 
mature a  hog  is,  the  greater  the  tendency  to  1k'  soft.  Almost 
invariably  the  largest  percentage  of  softness  occurs  among  the 
light  sides  of  bacon. 

2.  Lnch  'of  Finish. — Thin  hogs  have  a  marked  tendency 
to.  produce  soft  bacon.  ^Marketing  hogs  before  they  are  finislnHl 
is,  no  doubt,  resjiojisible  for  a  great  deal  of  softness. 

3.  I'lil/iriflinrss  in  hogs,  no  matter  what  the  cause  may 
be,  almost  invariably  produces  soft  bacon. 

4.  Ldch-  of  exercise  has  a  tendency  to  ])rodu('o  softness, 
])ut  this  tendency  can  be  largely  overcome  by  judicious  feeding. 

.5.  Exclusive  meal  feeding  is  perhaps  oTie  of  the  most  com- 
mon causes  of  softness,  especially  when  hogs  arc  not  given 
exercise.  Some  kinds  of  meal  are  more  injurious  than  others, 
but  wherever  exclusive  meal  fe<'ding  is  practised  and  the  ex- 
ercise is  limited,  more  or  less  softness  is  always  sure  to  result. 

C).  Corn. — Of  the  grains  in  conunon  use.  corn  has  the 
greatest  tendency  to  ])roduce  softness.  Tts  injurii>us  tendency 
can  be  modified  by  Tuixing  it  largely  with  other  meal,  or  by 
feeding  skim-milk,  green  feed,  and  roots,  but  its  tendency  to 
produce  softness  is  so  strong  that  it  must  he  regarded  as  an  un- 
desirable food  for  bacon  hogs. 

Com  a]>pears  to  give  a  good  quality  of  meat  in  the  case 
of  the  lard  hog,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  bacon 
hog  is  marketed  at  lighter  weights  and  in  thinner  condition 


MISCELLANEOUS  INVESTIGATIONS  135 

than  the  lard  hug,  aiid  possibly  this  may  explain  why  corn 
is  unsatisfactoiy  for  feeding  bacon  hogs.  It  is  possible  also 
that  the  difference  in  the  methods  of  curing  may  have  an 
influence. 

7.  Beans  seem  to  have  a  more  marked  effect  than  com  in 
producing  softness,  and  should  not  be  used  for  finishing  bacon 
hogs. 

FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF   GRGWIXG  AND   FATTENING  SWINE. 

Professor  Wm.  Dietrich,  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station, 
has  done  much  careful  work  upon  feeding  standards  for  swine.* 
Below  are  given  some  of  the  leading  features  of  the  standard 
evolved  by  him,  though  it  is  admitted  that  certain  modifications 
may  be  necessary  as  the  result  of  further  investigation. 

The  standard  starts  with  pigs  two  months  old  and  carries 
them  along  until  they  are  eight  months  old,  at  which  time  tliey 
are  ready  for  market. 

Water. — As  a  rule,  pigs  are  allowed  to  take  as  much  water 
as  their  appetite  dictates,  but  Professor  Dietrich  believes  that 
in  warm  weather  pigs  ordinarily  drink  too  nuu-h  water  and  in 
cold  weather  they  do  not  drink  enough,  so  tliat  he  prescril)ed 
definite  quantities  of  water  for  each  week  of  the  pig's  life  from 
two  months  to  eight  months  of  age.  The  standard  calls  for 
12  pounds  of  water  daily  ]K^r  100  pounds,  live  weight,  for  pigs 
two  months  old,  and  during  the  next  26  weeks,  or  until  the 
pig  is  eight  months  old,  there  is  a  gradual  and  uniform  decrease 
in  the  amount  of  water  to  4  pounds  per  day  for  100  pounds, 
live  weight,  for  pigs  eight  months  old.  The  reduction  in  water 
given  daily  per  100  |X)unds.  live  weight,  is  about  .3  of  a 
pound  for  oacli  week. 

Crude   Protein. — For   pigs   two  months   old   the  standard 

•Illinois  Circulars   12()  and   133  give  details  of  the  standards. 


136        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

calls  for  .G  of  a  pound  of  digestible  protein  per  day  per  100 
pounds,  live  weight  During  the  next  seven  weeks  there  is  a 
uniform  increase  each  week  until  the  j)igs  are  receiving  .7  of 
a  pound  per  day  per  100  pounds,  live  weight.  During  tin- 
next  four  weeks  there  is  a  uniform  decrease  to  the  starting- 
point  of  .0  of  a  pound  daily  per  100  pounds,  live  weight. 
Eleven  weeks  have  now  elapsed  since  tlie  commencement  of 
the  feeding  period,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  week, 
the  protein  is  increased  to  .65  of  a  pound  per  day  per  100 
pounds,  live  weight,  and  is  maintained  at  this  point  until  the 
pig  is  six  months  old.  After  the  pig  is  six  months  old,  it  is  fed 
largely  upon  carbonaceous  feeds,  though  it  has  been  fitnnd  an 
advantage  to  supply  rather  more  protein  than  is  found  in  corn. 

It  will  bo  seen  that  the  w^cekly  increase  of  digestible  ]irotein 
during  the  first  seven  weeks  is  about  .014  of  a  pound.  The 
weekly . decrease  during  tlio  eighth,  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh 
weeks  is  .25  of  a  pound.  Then  there  is  nn  increase  for  the 
twelfth  week  of  .25  of  a  pound,  and  the  allowance  is  then 
kept  uniform  until  the  pig  is  six  months  old. 

Carbohydrates. — For  pigs  two  months  old  the  standard 
calls  for  a  daily  allowance  of  2.2  pounds  of  digestible  earlxi- 
hydrates  per  100  pounds,  live  weight,  with  a  uniform  increase, 
week  by  week,  until  the  pigs  are  6  months  old,  at  which  time 
the  daily  allowance  is  2.fi  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates 
p(>r  100  pounds,  live  Aveight.  The  author  of  the  circnlar  states 
that  their  latest  investigations  indicate  that  the  carbohydrate 
allowance  might  start  at  2.4  pounds  and  end  at  2.8  pounds. 
After  the  pigs  are  6  months  old  the  ration  is  largely  car- 
bonaceous. According  to  the  standar<l  given,  tlu^  weekly  in- 
crease in  digestible  carbohydrates  amounts  in  a1>out  .02  of  a 
pound. 

Ether  Extract  or  Fat.^ — The  fat  content  of  the  ration  was 
found  difficult  to  control,  but  the  author  states  that  pigs  will 


MISCELLANEOUS  INVESTIGATIOxNS  137 

apparently  mako  larffor  uaiiis  wlieii  they  are  pven  a  little  more 
fat  in  their  ration  than  is  supplied  by  ordinary  fami  feeds. 
Soy  beans  are  recommended  as  a  source  of  protein  and  fat. 
Linseed  meal  should  also  be  a  desirable  feed  from  this  stand- 
point. 

Mineral  Matter. — The  mineral  matter  is  not  under  control, 
but  to  make  sure  that  the  hogs  have  an  abundant  supply,  it  is 
recommended  to  give  the  hogs  free  access  to  salt,  charcoal,  air- 
slaked  lime,  bone-meal,  wood-ashes,  clean  soil,  and  soft  coal 
cinder?. 

How  to  Use  the  Standard. — Following  is  an  abbreviated 
description  of  the  method  of  using  the  standard,  as  given  in 
circular  133 : 

Suppose  that  a  bunch  of  pigs  is  two  months  old  and  weighs 
685  pounds.  The  standard  shows  that  at  this  time  the  pigs 
require  daily,  per  100  pounds,  live  weight,  12  pounds  of  water, 
.6  pound  of  digestible  crude  protein,  and  2.2  pounds  of 
digestible  carbohydrates.  Multiplying  these  quantities  re- 
spectively by  the  total  live  weight,  namely,  685  pounds,  and 
pointing  off  to  the  proper  figure,  we  find  that  this  bunch  of 
pigs  will  require  a  total  of  82.2  pounds  of  water,  4.11  pounds 
of  digestible  crude  protein,  and  15.07  pounds  of  digestible 
carbohydrates  per  day.  Xext,  we  must  make  a  selection  of 
feeds  which  we  think  will  be  suitable,  and,  by  reference  to 
any  table  which  gives  the  amount  of  digestible  constituents 
in  one  pound  of  each  of  the  feeds,  we  must  take  such  quan- 
tities of  the  different  feeds  as  to  bring  the  protein  and  carbo- 
hydrates up  to  the  standard,  and  add  sufficient  water  to  bring 
it  to  the  standard  also.  We  have  now  arrived  at  the  amount 
of  feed  which  this  bunch  of  pigs  should  consume  in  one  day 
when  two  months  old.  But  each  day  the  pigs  will  require  a 
slight  increase  in  feed,  and,  since  it  is  not  practicable  to  weigh 
the  pigs  every  day  and  calculate  our  ration  each  day,  we  must 


138         liESLLTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  .SWINE  FEEDING 

estimate  what  tlie  pigs  will  probably  weigh  at  the  end  of  the 
week,  formulate  a  ration  in  accordance  with  this  estimate, 
and  gradually  work  tlioni  uj)  to  the  (puintity  the  standard  calls 
for  by  the  end  of  the  week.  Suppose  we  estimate  that  the 
pigs  will  gain  G5  pounds  during  the  week,  making  a  total  of 
850  pounds.  Referring  to  our  standard,  we  lind  tluU  the  daily 
water  requirement  per  100  pounds,  live  weight,  lias  decreased 
.3  of  a  pound  by  the  end  of  the  week,  the  digestible  protein 
has  increased  .014  (say  .015),  of  a  pound,  and  the  carbo- 
hydrate requirement  has  increased  .02  of  a  ])()nn(l.  Hence, 
by  the  end  of  the  week  the  pigs  should  be  receiving  daily,  11.7 
pounds  of  water,  .615  of  a  pound  of  protein,  and  2.22  jwunds 
of  carbohydrates  per  100  pounds  of  their  live  weight.  ^Mul- 
tiplying  these  amounts  by  850  (estimated  weight)  and  dividing 
by  100,  we  get  tlie  total  daily  recpiirement  per  100  ])ounds, 
live  weight,  for  the  bunch  of  pigs  at  the  end  of  the  week — 
which  amounts  to  99.45  pounds  of  water,  5.2275  pounds  of 
digestible  protein,  and  also  18.87  pounds  digestible  carbohy- 
drates. 

We  must  now  refer  to  table  of  digestible  constituents,  and 
add  feeds  in  such  proportions  as  to  bring  our  ration  into  con- 
formity with  the  standard.  Having  arrived  at  our  ration  for 
the  beginning  of  the  week,  and  also  estimated  it  for  the  close 
of  the  week,  we  can  make  each  day's  feeding  apjiroach  suffi- 
ciently close  to  the  standard.  At  the  close  of  the  week  the 
hogs  are  weighed,  their  gain  estimated  for  the  following  week, 
the  ration  adjusted  to  the  weight  and  age  of  the  hogs,  as  it 
was  done  for  the  first  w^eek,  and  the  operation  repeated  for 
each  succeeding  week. 

Features  of  the  Standard. — There  are  two  things  about 
the  standard  which  call  for  remark.  Tn  the  first  ])lace,  the 
writer's  experience  is  that  the  hog  is  a  pretty  good  judge  of  the 
amount  of  water  he  requires,  and  the  chances  are  tlint  water 


MISCELLANEOUS  IXVESTIGATIOXS  139 

will  be  droppt'd  from  the  standard  in  the  course  of  time.  This 
remark  is  based  upon  certain  experimental  work,  but  the  work 
is  not  sutfieiently  advanced  to  warrant  a  definite  statement. 

In  the  second  place,  the  standard  is  very  complex,  and 
it  would  be  difficult  for  the  busy  farmer  to  calculate  rations  and 
follow  the  intricacies  of  the  standard.  On  the  other  hand, 
Professor  Dietrich  deserves  great  credit  for  the  thoroughness 
of  his  investigations,  and  the  standard  is  especially  valuable 
on  account  of  the  light  it  throws  upon  the  protein  requirement 
of  young  i^igs.  There  is  no  doubt  that  many  a  promising 
litter  has  been  stunted  through  ignorance  of  this  important 
point.  Xo  doubt  the  standard  will  eventually  be  modified  and 
simplified  until  it  is  brought  within  the  reach  of  the  average 
intelligent  feeder. 

IIOGS    FOLLOWING    STEEES. 

^fany  farmers  who  fatten  steers  regard  the  hog  as  a  neces- 
sary adjunct  to  the  business  if  a  profit  is  to  be  obtained, 
Tlie  hogs  work  over  the  dropjungs  of  the  steers  and  fatten 
upon  the  undigested  grain  in  the  manure  of  the  cattle. 

Illinois. — The  number  of  hogs  per  steer,  which  can  be 
used  to  advantage,  will  vary  with  the  character  of  the  ration 
fed  the  steers.  H.  W.  Mumford,  in  Bulletin  103  of  the  Illinois 
Experiment  Station,  states:  "  Where  enough  pigs  are  provided 
to  consume  undigeste<l  feed  in  the  droppings  of  steers,  it  re- 
quires fully  twice  as  many  where  corn  is  fed  whole  as  it  does 
where  meal  is  fed  to  the  steers."  The  same  writer  secured 
gains  on  hogs  following  steers  ranging  from  111.5  pounds  of 
pork  to  6.3  pounds  of  pork  jx'r  steer,  in  a  feeding  period  of 
six  months.  The  largest  gain  was  made  by  hogs  following 
steers  fed  shelled  corn,  and  the  smallest  by  hogs  following 
steers  fed  com  me^l  and  silage. 


140        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

Indiana. — C^ircular  12  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 
gives  a  summary  of  nine  hundred  and  twenty-nine  replies  to 
questions  bearing  upon  beef  production,  sent  out  by  the 
Experiment  Station.  Eighty-eight  per  cent  of  those  sending 
replies  rej)orted  that  it  is  not  profitable  to  feed  cattle  unless 
hogs  follow.  The  average  number  of  hogs  ])er  steer  was 
1.5,  which  is  ivgarded  as  high  by  the  authors  of  the  bulletin, 
unless  additional  feed  is  su])pli('(l  the  Imgs.  Imliana  experi- 
ments indicate  that  the  waste  will  not  sup])ort  more  than  one 
hog  to  a  steer.  The  average  age  of  hogs  preferred  by  cattle 
feeders  for  following  steers  was  about  5  months,  and  the  aver- 
age weight  92  pounds. 

Missouri. — Bulletin  70  of  the  Missouri  Experiment  St^i- 
tion  is  similar  to  the  Indiana  circular,  and  end)ra('es  the 
experience  of  nearly  a  thousand  cattle  feeders  in  Missouri, 
Iowa,  and  Illinois.  Director  Waters  summarizes  the  replies  to 
the  questions  of  the  number  of  hogs  per  steer,  as  follows:  "  An 
a])proximate  average  number  of  hogs  per  steer  wouM  be  like 
the  following,  on  tlie  basis  of  two-year-old  cattle  and  100-  or 
150-pound  hogs:  Snapped  ear  com,  2  to  3  hogs  per  steer;  ear 
com,  ll/i>  liogs  P^r  steer;  shelled  cdni,  1  to  IMj  hogs  per  steer; 
crushed  or  ground  corn,  i;',  ^'^  ^  L'  hog  per  steer." 

When  steers  are  given  feeds  rich  in  protein  in  addition  to 
corn,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  or  eow-pea  hay,  or  concentrates 
such  as  linseed  meal,  a  small  alK)wance  of  cottonseed  meal,  etc., 
hogs  make  better  gains  than  when  feeds  poor  in  protein  are  fed 
to  the  steers  with  corn.  Tn  summer  feeding,  access  to  a  pasture 
will  take  the  place  of  other  supplemental  feeds,  clover  and 
alfalfa  being  especially  beneficial. 

Feed  Required  for  Maintenance. — Investigations  at  the  Wis- 
consin Station  indicate  that  a  pig  can  be  nuiintained  for  one 
day  (neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  weight)  on  about  one  pet 


MISCELLANEOUS  INVESTIGATIONS  141 

cent  of  its  live  weight  of  feed  in  the  form  of  whc«it  middlings. 
That  is  to  say,  one  pound  of  feed  equal  in  value  to  one  pound 
of  wheat  middlings  will  support  a  pig  weighing  100  pounds 
for  one  day,  but  will  provide  nothing  for  gain  in  weight.  Pro- 
portionately larger  amounts  would  be  recjuired  for  heavier  pigs. 
Further,  it  was  shown  that  a  50-pound  pig  used  only  18  per 
cent  of  the  feed  it  consumed  for  the  support  of  its  body,  leav- 
ing 82  per  cent  of  what  it  consumed  for  producing  gain  in 
weight.  The  percentage  of  feed  required  for  body  maintenance 
increased  as  the  pig  became  heavier  and  a  200-pound  pig  required 
36  per  cent  of  its  feed  for  maintenance,  leaving  only  64  per 
cent  for  production.  This  is  a  striking  illustration  of  the  ability 
of  young  animals  to  use  feed  economically. 

Spayed  vs.  Unspayed  Sows. — Bulletin  70  of  the  Utah  Station  reports 
a  test  in  wliicli  three  spayed  sows  were  fed  in  comparison  with  three  un- 
spayed sows.  The  gains  were  slightly  in  favor  of  the  unspayed  sows,  but 
the  difference  was  very  slight.  The  results  of  this  test,  coupled  with  the 
results  of  feeding  barrows  and  sows,  point  to  the  conclusion  that  spaying 
sows  is  an  unnecessary  and  unprofitable  operation. 

Barrows  vs.  Sows. — The  Wisconsin  Station  compared  the  gains  made 
by  98  sows  and  an  equal  numljer  of  barrows.  The  sows  made  an  average 
gain  during  tlie  feeding  period  of  102  pounds,  and  the  barrows,  107  pounds. 
Professor  Henry,  in  "  Feeds  and  Feeding "  quotes  results  from  feeding 
1216  pigs  in  Denmark,  which  showed  practically  no  difference  between  bar- 
rows and  sows  as  to  gain,  shrinkage,  or  quality  of  carcass.  The  Utah  Station 
conducted  tests  in  which  the  average  gains  made  by  Sows  were  higher  than 
those  made  by  barrows. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  results  of  feeding  corn  in  contrast  with  a  protein-rich  ration. 

2.  What  can  you  say  of  the  tendency  of  corn  to  produce  fat? 

3.  Briefly  discuss  seven  causes  of  soft  bacon. 

4.  Discuss  the  question  of  water  for  swine  by  the  Dietrich  standard. 

5.  Discuss  crude  protein   for  the  same;   also  carbohydrates. 

6.  Tell  of  the  needs  of  fat  and  of  mineral  matter  for  the  same. 

7.  Can  you  apply  tlie  Dietrich  standard  to  the  feeding  of  a  pen  of  pigs?' 

8.  Mention  two  objectionable  features  of  the  standard. 

0.  Give  soige  conclusions  regarding  the  question  of  hogs  following  steers. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


CORN. 


Pounds  of  Pork  from  a  Bushel  of  Corn. — As  in  nearly  all 
live-stock  investiii:ations,  wide  variations  have  occurred  in  con- 
nection with  this  ai)])arently  simple  jtrohlein.  .Fanners  have 
been  asked  to  report  results  through  the  agricultural  papers, 
and  numerous  results  have  Ix^en  obtained  from  experiment  sta- 
tions. Professor  Robbins,  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station, 
presents  a  very  concise  summinii"  u]i  of  the  quostinn  in  the 
(•r>lnmns  of  The  Breeder's  Gazetir^  where  he  gives  the  following 
fable: 


Number 

Ol 

tests. 

Number 

of 

hogs. 

Number 

of  days 

fed. 

Average 
weight 
of  hogs 
at  start 

Gain 
per  day 

Corn  for 

100  lbs. 

gain. 

Gain 

per 

bushel 

of  corn. 

8 

18 

2G 

322 
144 

466 

56 
79 

C8 

lbs. 
157 
149 

153 

lbs. 
1.09 
1.09 

1.09 

lbs. 
544 

5^8 

546 

lbs. 
10.3 

Experiment  stations 
Farmers  and  experi- 
ment stations 

10.2 
10.25 

The  results  given  in  the  table  are  from  tests  where  only 
whole  com  was  fed,  no  sui)pleinentary  feeds  or  pasture  being 
used.  The  results  from  farmers  and  i-xjd'riment  stations  ngive 
very  clo.sely,  and  confirm  llic  gcn('r;il  liclicf  tiuit  liogs  on  full 
feed  of  whole  com  shoulil  gam  iiiiout  one  jiound  j)er  day,  and 
make  ten  pounds  of  pork  from  a.  l)ush(d  of  com.  Tliis  is  not 
p  laiflce  return  from  a  bu.shel  of  corn,  but  the  method  of  feeding 
is  no  I   the  most  economical. 

Whole  Corn  vs.  (iround  Con. — The  Wisconsin  Experi- 
ment Station  has  conducted  exliaustive  experiments  with  whole 
com  and  ground  com  for  fattening  swine.     The  experiments 

(142) 


CORN  143 

extend  over  a  jieriod  of  ten  years.  Eighteen  separate  tests 
were  made,  in  whieli  a  total  of  280  pigs  were  used.  Bulletin 
145  gives  a  suniniary  of  the  results. 

The  feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  varied 
from  360  pounds  to  820  pounds,  the  poorest  gains  being  made 
in  the  case  of  young  pigs,  weighing  84  pounds  when  the  trial 
began,  which  were  fed  upon  com  alone,  and  the  best  gains  for 
feed  consumed  were  made  by  young  pigs  which  were  fed  equal 
parts  by  weight  of  corn  and  middlings  with  a  small  allowance 
of  skim-milk. 

The  140  pigs  fed  ground  com  ate  5510  pounds  more  grain 
and  made  2036  pounds  more  gain  than  the  140  pigs  fed 
whole  com. 

The  pigs  fed  whole  corn  consumed  an  average  of  501 
pounds  of  grain  for  each  100  pounds  of  gain,  and  the  pigs  fed 
ground  corn  consumed  471  pounds  of  grain  for  each  100 
pounds  of  gain. 

Eleven  trials  out  of  the  eighteen  showed  a  saving  from 
grinding,  the  amount  saved  varying  from  2.5  per  cent  to  18.5 
per  cent.  The  remaining  seven  trials  showed  a  loss  from 
grinding,  the  loss  varying  from  1.1  per  cent  to  11.1  per 
cent. 

The  average  of  the  eighteen  trials  shows  a  saving  of  6 
per  cent  from  grinding  com. 

Of  the  140  pigs  fed  whole  corn,  45  pigs  gained  more  than 
the  average,  and  95  pigs  gained  less  than  the  average.  Of  the 
140  i)igs  fed  ground  corn,  91  pigs  gained  more  than  the 
average,  and  49  pigs  gained  less  tlian  the  average. 

The  authors  of  the  bulletin  point  out  that  the  economy  of 
grinding  com  will  depend  upon  the  price  of  com  and  the  cost 
of  grinding,  and  the  following  table  is  given  to  assist  the 
farmer  in  determining  when  to  grind : 


144 


RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 


Saving  Effected  per  Bushel  by  Grinding  Corn  for 
Fattening  Pigs. 


cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

eta. 

When  corn  is  worth:.  .  . 
Saved  by  grinding : 

25 
1.5 

30 

1.8 

35 
2.1 

40 
2.4 

45 
2.7 

50 
3.0 

55 
3.3 

60 
3.6 

65 
3.9 

70 

4.2 

75 
4.5 

The  authors  conclude  that  where  there  is  plenty  of  time  for 
maturing  pigs,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  pays  to  grind  the  corn. 
Pigs  eat  more  com  when  it  is  ground,  and  make  somewhat  more 
rapid  gains.  Ground  com  is  recommended  for  finishing  hogs 
that  have  been  fed  shelled  corn  until  near  the  close  of  the  feed- 
ing period. 

Ear  Corn,  Shelled  Corn,  and  Com  Meal  (Soaked  and 
Dry). — In  Bulletin  106,  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  reports 
results  of  two  years'  work  with  hogs  of  different  ages.  As  a 
result  of  these  tests  the  follomng  recommendations  are  made 
regarding  farm  practice: 

"  These  results  clearly  indicate  the  most  profitable  farm 
practice  where  corn  is  the  main  part  of  the  ration  for  hogs. 
The  fastest  and  most  profitable  gains  were  secured  by  feeding 
dry  ear  com  until  the  hogs  were  close  to  200  pounds  in  weight. 
The  scoop  shovel  was  all  that  was  needed  to  prepare  corn  for 
them.  Then,  if  the  hogs  were  to  be  fed  longer  and  the  weather 
permitted,  the  most  profitable  gains  were  secured  by  changing 
them  to  soaked  shelled  corn.  Spring  pigs,  to  be  sold  the  next 
fall  and  winter,  thus  gave  the  best  results  when  fcnl  dry  ear 
corn  until  sold.  Fall  pigs,  and  the  spring  pigs  carried  over 
to  be  fattened  the  following  spring,  were  handled  most  profit- 
ably by  feeding  dry  ear  corn  until  the  weather  became  mild 
enough  for  soaking  com  in  the  following  spring,  and  then 
feeding  soaked  shelled  com  until  the  finish.  This  was  especially 
1n*ue  when  the  hogs  were  run  on  pasture.     The  old  sows  made 


CORN  145 

faster  autl  more  economical  gains  on  dry  com  meal  than  on 
ear  corn,  but  the  benetit  from  this  was  largely  lost  when  it  was 
finally  necessary  to  shij)  them  to  market  on  ear  com.  They 
were  handled  most  protitably  by  feeding  soaked  shelled  com. 
It  shonld  be  b<:)rne  in  mind  that  com  soaked  twelve  hours  gave 
better  results  than  that  soaked  twenty-four  hours." 

"  Hogs  fed  on  dry  ear  com  required  a  longer  time  to  eat 
than  those  fed  soaked  corn  or  corn  meal,  owing  to  the  more 
thorough  mastication  of  the  dry  ear  com.  Young  hogs  and 
pigs  reduced  tlie  drs^  kernels  from  the  ear  com  to  a  finer  state 
of  division  than  did  the  older  hogs." 

"  It  proved  useless  to  grind  com  for  hogs  of  any  age 
when  the  weather  was  warm  enough  to  permit  soaking.  In 
every  case  where  grinding  has  shown  a  saving  of  com,  simple 
soaking  twelve  hours  in  water  has  shown  a  still  greater  saving." 

Trials  Differ. — While  not  quite  the  same  as  the  findings  of 
the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  the  Iowa  results  are  some- 
what similar  to  tliose  of  Wisconsin,  and  they  bring  out  a  very 
interesting  and  important  point  regarding  young  animals.  The 
fact  that  young  hogs  masticate  their  feed  more  thoroughly 
than  older  ones  helps  to  ex]ilain  why  they  made  better  use  of 
whole  corn  than  did  the  older  hogs,  and  also  affords  a  reason 
for  the  fact  that  young  hogs  almost  invariably  make  cheaper 
gains  than  older  ones. 

Trial  in  Maryland. — The  Maryland  Experiment  Station 
(Bulletin  l.j(J)  rejxjrts  a  tx'st  of  shelled  com  and  ground  com, 
and  reports  as  follows :  "  It  appears  that  in  this  expt^riment 
there  was  little  difference  in  economy  between  shelled  corn  and 
com  meal,  but  this  small  difference  is  in  favor  of  com  meal." 

Other    experiment    stations,    including   Alabama,    Maine, 

New  York,  .Ohio,   West   Virginia,    Kentucky,    and    Missouri, 

have  conducted  tests  in  connection  with  this  problem.     Out  of 

eleven  trials  at  these  stations,  where  the  total  feed  cx)nsuraed 

10 


146        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

is  reported,  four  trials  resulted  in  favor  of  whole  corn  and 
seven  in  favor  of  ground  corn.  In  one  trial  -where  whole  com 
ffave  l>etter  results,  the  com  was  soalced. 

Hogging  off  corn  means  turning  the  hogs  into  a  field  of 
standing  corn  aiul  allowing  them  to  pull  down  the  stalks  and 
consume  the  corn  at  will. 

The  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  has  issued  a  most 
interesting  bulletin  on  tliis  subject.  Two  experiments  were 
conducted  in  which  hogs  allowed  the  run  of  a  cornfield  were 
compared  with  hogs  fed  in  a  drv  lot  on  ear  corn.  In  the  first 
experiment  no  shelter  was  provided  for  either  lot,  but  they 
were  given  straw  for  bedding.  In  the  second  experiment 
the  yard  hogs  were  given  shelter,  but  the  field  hogs  were  treated 
as  before. 

Shorts  were  fed  to  each  lot  as  a  supplement  to  the  corn, 
at  the  rate  of  one  pound  of  shorts  per  day  per  hundred  pounds 
weight  of  the  pigs. 

In  the  first  trial  there  were  26  field  hogs  and  13  yard 
hogs;  and  in  the  second  trial,  32  field  hogs  and  8  yard  hogs. 

The  first  trial  commenced  Oetol)er  11th  and  ended 
ISTovember  29tli.  The  second  trial  commenced  September  19th 
and  ended  November  9th. 

In  each  trial  tlic  field  hogs  were  given  an  acre  of  corn  at 
a  time,  instead  of  being  allowed  the  run  of  the  whole  field. 

The  ear  corn  consumed  by  the  field  hogs  had  to  be  estimated 
by  taking  samples. 

The  average  daily  gain  ])vr  hog  in  the  two  trials  was  as 
follows : 

First  trial:    Field  lot,  1.3  pounds;  ear-coni  lot,  .98  pound. 

Second  trial:  Field  lot,  1.44  pounds;  ear-corn  lot,  1.09 
pounds. 

The  amount  of  feed  consumed  per  100  pounds  of  gain  was 
as  follows: 


CORN  147 

Feed  Cunsumed  Per  Hundred  I'uunda  Uain. 


First  trial . . . 
Second  trial . 


Average  of  two  trials  J 


Field  lot 
Yard  lot 
Field  lot 
Yard  lot 
Field  lot 
Yard  lot 


Shorts 

Ear  corn 

lbs. 

lbs. 

139 

696 

169 

831 

103 

.'i32 

146 

573 

121 

614 

157 

702 

Total 


lbs. 
835 
1000 
635 
719 
735 
859 


The  larger  amount  of  feed  for  100  pounds  gain  in  the 
first  trial,  as  compared  wdth  the  second  trial,  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  weight  of  the  ear  corn  when  first  husked  was 
used  in  the  first  year's  calculations,  whereas  the  second  trial 
is  calculat{>d  upon  a  cured  corn  basis,  tliat  is,  corn  drs'  enough 
for  market. 

Results. — It  will  be  seen  that  the  field  hogs  made  larger 
and  more  economical  gains  than  the  yard  hogs  in  each 
experiment. 

In  the  second  experiment  a  third  group  of  hogs  was  used. 
These  hogs  were  fed  in  a  dry  lot  upon  snapped  com, — that  is, 
the  ears  of  com  without  the  husks  removed.  This  lot  occu- 
pied an  intermediate  position,  both  in  rate  and  economy  of 
gain,  the  snapped  com  giving  better  results  than  the  ear  corn. 

A  summar}'  appearing  in  Bulletin  10-i  gives  the  following 
notes: 

"  The  cost  of  fencing  cornfields  may  be  from  $1.00  to  $2.50 
less  per  acre  than  the  cost  of  husking." 

"  It  requires  no  more  labor  to  prepare  for  subsequent  crops, 
fields  that  have  been  '  hogged  oflF '  than  those  that  have  been 
treated  by  the  ordinary  methods  of  har^-esting." 

"  Hogs  waste  no  more  com  in  field  than  when  fed  in  ynrd. 
They  pick  the  com  as  clean  as  most  men  do  in  husking." 


148        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

"  Three  pounds  of  rape  seed  (per  acre)  sown  in  corn  at 
last  cultivation,  furnishes  considerable  succulent  feed,  wliich 
may  take  the  place  of  high-priced  shorts." 

"  It  is  not  expected  that  all  corn  raised  be  fed  off  with 
hogs,  but  the  amount  they  can  clean  up  from  the  time  it  is 
nicely  glazed  until  the  weather  becomes  unfavorable  may  be 
economically  fed  in  this  way." 

"  Hogs  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  turned  into  more  corn 
at  one  time  than  they  can  eat  up  clean  in  two  or  three  weeks. 
The  shorter  period  is  preferable." 

Best  Conditions. — It  is  recommended  that  varieties  of  corn 
be  grown  tliat  will  mature  sufficiently  by  the  first  of  September, 
so  as  to  prolong  the  feeding  period. 

Pigs  weighing  from  100  to  140  pomids  are  best  for  the 
purpose.     Small  pigs  are  not  suitable. 

The  table  which  follows  is  designed  to  show,  approximately, 
the  number  of  days  required  to  "  hog  off  "  an  acre  of  corn  by  a 
given  number  of  pigs  weighing  125  pounds. 


30  bu. 
per 


Days 
Will  keep  10  hoRS  22.5 
Will  keep  20  hogs      11.2 


With  corn  shrunk  to  January  1,  and  yielding: 


35  bu. 
per 


Days 
26.2 
13.1 


40  bu.    45  bu. 
per  per 

acre.       acre. 


Days 
30.0 
15.0 


Days 
33.7 
16.8 


50  bu. 
per 
acre. 


55  bu. 
per 
acre. 


Days 
37.5 
18.7 


Days 
41.2 
20.6 


60  bu. 
per 


65  bu, 
per 


Days 
45.0 
22.5 


Days 

48.7 
24.3 


70  bu. 
per 


Days 
52.5 
26.2 


Tests  in  Missouri. — The  Missouri  Experiment  Station 
(Bulletin  95)  reports  five  tests  in  "  hogging  off  "  com.  In  two 
of  the  tests  rye  was  sown  among  the  com  at  the  last  cultivation 
at  the  rate  of  one  bushel  per  acre ;  in  two  other  plots  cow-peas 
were  sown  at  the  last  cultivation  at  the  rate  of  one  bushel 
per  acre;  and  in  one  plot  rape  was  sown  at  the  rate  of  0  pounds 
per  acre.     The  following  table  shows  the  principal  details: 


CORN 


149 


Com  with  Forage. 


Feeding  Period. 

Aug.   27 

to 
Sept.  27. 

Aug.   27 

to 
Sept.  26. 

Sept.   20 

to 
Nov.   15. 

Sept.  20 

to 
Dec.  3d. 

Sept.  20 

to 
Nov.    1. 

Forage. 

Corn 
and 
rye. 

Corn 

and 

cow-peas. 

Corn 

and 

cow-peaa. 

Corn 
and 
rye. 

.Corn 
and 
rape. 

No.  of  hogs  per  acre 

Total  gain  per  acre 

No.  days  corn  lasted 

Average  wt.  per  hog  at 
commencement  of  test .  . 

10 

010  lb. 

31 

140.6 

10 

568  lb. 

30 

141.4 

12 

276  lb. 

57 

102.5 

12 

302  lb. 
75 

100.3 

12 

220  lb. 

51 

931b. 

Teachings. — It  will  be  noted  that  there  was  a  very  wide 
variation  in  the  amount  of  pork  produced  per  acre,  and  that 
the  heavier  hogs  gave  better  results  than  the  lighter  ones. 

This  method  of  harvesting  corn  helps  to  reduce  the  labor 
bill. 

It  is  recommended  to  use  movable  hurdles  and  give  the 
hogs  access  to  what  they  will  harvest  in  about  10  days,  the 
hurdles  being  moved  as  required. 

"  Hogging  off  "  corn  gives  best  results  when  the  weather  is 
dry. 

It  is  recommended  to  accustom  the  hogs  gradually  to  new 
corn  before  turning  them  into  tlie  field. 

Hogs  may  be  turned  into  the  cornfield  as  soon  as  the  dent 
has  formed  on  the  kernel. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  the  number  of  pounds  of  pork  from  a  bushel  of  corn  as 
determined  by  the  Iowa  trial. 

2.  What  does  the  economy  of  grinding  corn  for  swine  depend  upon? 

3.  Give  the  conclusion  regarding  this  after  the  Wisconsin  trial. 

4.  What  did  the  Iowa  trial  show  regarding  grinding  and  soaking 
of  corn? 

5.  What  is  meant  hy  "  hogging  ofT  corn  "? 

6.  Give  the  result  of  the  "Minnesota  trial  regarding  this. 

7.  Give  the  points  in  the  "Minnesota  summary. 

8.  Give  the  best  conditions  for  practising  this  method  of  feeding. 

9.  Give  the  teachings  of  the  Missouri  test. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
SUPPLEMENTARY    FEEDS   WITH    CORN. 

It  has  been  already  noted  that  corn  is  essentially  a  fat- 
forming  feed,  and  that  it  is  not  a  good  bone  and  muscle 
former.  The  evil  effects  of  exclusive  corn  feeding  are  most 
conspicuous  in  the  case  of  young,  growing  pigs,  and  numerous 
experiments  have  been  conducted  in  combining  other  feeds 
with  corn,  which  would  tend  to  overcome  its  objectionable 
features.  The  influence  of  exclusive  corn  feeding  upon  the 
composition  of  the  body  has  been  discussed,  but  its  influence 
upon  the  growth  and  economical  gains  of  the  animal  has  yet  to 
be  considered. 

Blood  Meal  and  Pea  Meal. — In  "  Feeds  and  Feeding," 
Henry,  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  reports  gains 
and  feed  consumed  by  three  lots  of  pigs  fed  as  follows: 

Lot  1 :    1/^  blood  meal,  %  com  meal. 

Lot  2 :    1/^  pea  meal,  i/4  com  meal. 

Lot  3  :   Corn  meal  only. 

During  the  trial. 

Lot  1  gained  202  pounds,  and  required  409  pounds  of 
feed  for  100  pounds  of  gain. 

Lot  2  gained  180  pounds  and  required  449  pounds  of  feed 
for  100  pounds  of  gain. 

Lot  3  gained  155  pounds  and  required  481  pounds  of 
feed  for  100  pounds  of  gain. 

Blood  meal  is  very  rioli  in  protein,  and  peas  arc  much 
richer  in  protein  than  corn.  The  effect  of  using  such  feeds 
with  com  is  very  noticeable  in  the  larger  gains  and  smaller 
feed  requirements  for  100  pounds  gain. 

(150) 


SUPPLEMENTARY  FEEDS  WITH  CORN 


151 


Bone  Meal  and  Hard-wood  Ashes. — Henry  also  reports 
tlirc'o  trials  in  fcciling'  Wmc  nica.1  with  corn,  and  hard-wood 
ashes  \\'ith  corn,  ag^ainst  corn  alone,  six  pigs  from  the  same 
litter  being  nsed  in  each  trial.  Regarding  these  trials  the 
author  writes: 

"  As  tlie  trials  progressed,  it  became  evident  that  none  of 
the  pigs  were  properly  nurtured,  though  the  difference  in 
favor  of  those  getting  bone  meal  or  ashes  was  very  marked. 
The  pigs  allowed  neither  ashes  nor  bone  meal  were  most  plainly 
dwarfed.  .  .  .  These  dwarfs  became  so  fat  that  the  jowls  and 
bellies  of  some  of  them  nearly  touched  the  ground." 

The  following  table,  taken  from  "  Feeds  and  Feeding," 
shows  some  striking  differences: 


Com  meal  required  to  produce  100 
pounds  of  gain,  pounds 

Averasie  breaking  strength  of  thigh- 
bones, pounds 

Average  ash  in  thigh-bones,  grams.  . 


When  bone 
meal  was  fed. 


487 

680 
166 


When    ashes 
were  fed. 


491 

581 
150 


When  neither 
was  fed 


629 

301 
107 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table  that  the  appetite  of 
the  hog  for  such  substances  as  ashes  is  not  without  significance. 

Wheat  Middlings  and  Skim-Milk.— J.  G.  Fuller,  of  the 
Wisconsin  Kxperinient  Station,  reports  an  experiment  with 
two  lots  of  Berkshire  pigs.  They  were  young  pigs,  w^eighing 
alx)Ut  51  pounds  each  when  the  experiment  began.  One  lot 
was  fed  com  meal  only,  and  the  other  was  fed  a  mixture  of 
e/)rn  meal,  wheat  middlings,  and  skim-milk.  The  following 
conclusions  are  drawn  from  the  experiment: 

Tf  the  pigs  were  valued  at  the  same  price  per  pound,  the 
mixed  ratirm  hit  would  return  a  profit  practically  four  times 
that  of  the  corn  lot. 


152        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

The  amount  of  drv  matter  required  for  a  pound  of  gain 
was  twice  as  great  in  the  com  group  as  in  the  mixed  ration 
group. 

The  mixed  ration  group  made  4.2  times  as  great  a  gain 
as  tlie  pigs  in  the  com  group. 

On  an  average,  the  thigh-bones  of  the  mixed-ration  group 
were  50  per  cent  stronger  than  those  from  the  com  group. 

The  constitution  of  tlie  pigs  in  the  com  group  was  seriously 
impaired. 

Finally,  it  is  highly  impracticable  to  raise  growing  i)igs 
upon  a  ration  of  com  alone. 

Soy-Bean  Meal  and  Wheat  Middlings. — Tlnnii)lirev  and 
Fuller,  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  report,  three 
tests  in  which  soy-bean  meal  was  compared  with  wheat 
middlings  as  a  supplement  to  com.  The  soy  luau  is  very 
rich  in  protein  and  fat,  and  the  object  of  the  experiment  was 
to  compare  it  with  wheat  middlings,  which  are  generally 
recognized  as  being  a  good  supplement  to  com. 

Two  pounds  of  corn  meal  were  fed  with  each  pound  of 
soy-bean  meal  or  wheat  middlings,  and  skim-milk  was  also  fed 
to  both  lots.  Part  of  tlie  time  the  hogs  were  on  pasture,  and 
part  of  the  time  in  pens.  The  authors  draw  tho  folloAnng 
conclusions : 

"  Soy-bean  meal  makes  an  excellent  supplement  to  corn 
meal  for  growing  and  fattening  pigs." 

"  Soy-bean  meal  is  from  8  to  10  per  cent  more  valuable 
than  wheat  middlings  for  economical  pork  production  when  the 
cost  of  the  two  feeds  is  the  same." 

"  For  firmness,  fine  grain  and  texture  of  flesh,  and  even 
distribution  of  fat  and  lean,  the  ration  of  wheat  middling? 
and  com  meal  is  superior  to  that  of  soy  beans  and  com  meal." 

Looking  over  these  conclusions,  we  must  admit  that  soy- 


SUPPLEMENTARY  FEEDS  WITH  CORN 


153 


beans  have  not  made  a  verv  good  showing;,  beeanse,  in  most 
localities,  wheat  middlings  would  be  very  much  cheaper.  The 
influence  upon  the  texture  and  firmness  of  the  meat  is  also 
worthy  of  consideration. 

Barley,  Shorts,  Meat  Meal,  and  Tankage. — The  Iowa  Ex- 
periment Stiition  reports  an  experiment  with  forty-eight  well- 
grown  hogs  divided  into  four  lots.  The  rations  of  the  different 
lots  were  as  follows: 

Lot   1.  Corn,  two  ])arts;  barley,  one  part;  shorts,  one  part^ 

Lot  2.  Com. 

Lot  3".  Com,  nine  parts;  Armour's  meat  meal,  one  part. 

Lot  4.  Corn,  nine  parts;  Swift's  tankage,  one  part. 

!Meat  meal  and  tankage  are  by-products  of  the  packing 
house,  and  are  lx)th  very  rich  in  protein.  The  meat  meal  used 
in  this  experiment  contained  60.36  per  cent  of  protein,  and 
the  tankage  53.54  per  cent.  Such  highly  concentrated  feeds 
must  be  used  in  small  quantities.  The  hogs  averaged  218 
pounds  each  at  the  commencement  of  the  trial,  which  lasted 
tliirty-two  days. 

The  average  daily  gain  jier  hog  in  each  group  was  as 
follows:  Meat  meal,  2.6  pounds;  tankage,  2.3  pounds;  barley 
and  shorts,  2.2  pounds;  com  alone,  l.S  pounds. 

The  feed  consumed  per  100  poimds  gain  is  shown  in  the 
following  table: 


Lot  1.  Com,  barley  and 
shorts 

Lot  2.     Com  alone 

liOt  3.  Com  and  meat 
meal 

Lot  4.  Com  and  tank- 
age....     


Com. 


lbs. 

198.9 
463.5 

333.3 

358.8 


Barley. 


lbs. 
99.5 


Shorts. 


lbs. 

99.5 


Meat 
meal. 


lbs. 


37.0 


Tankage 

Total. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

397.9 
463.5 

370.3 

39.9 

398.7 

154         RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDLXG 

Feeds  were  vahuMl  as  follows: 

Corn,  43  wiits  per  ")()  ])onii(L<,  or  70.8  cents  per  luindred- 
weight. 

Barley,  35  cents  per  bushel,  or  72.0  cents  per  hundred- 
weight. 

Shorts,  $18.00  per  ton,  or  90  cents  per  hundred-weight. 

Meat  meal,  $35.00  per  ton,  or  $1.75  per  hundred- weight 

Tankage,  $33.00  per  ton,  or  $1.65  per  hundred-weight. 

According  to  these  values,  the  cost  of  100  pounds  gain  was 
as  follows:  lot  1,  $3.15;  lot  2,  $3.56;  lot  3,  $3.21;  lot  4, 
$3.41. 

Conchisioii. — It  will  be  noted  that  the  group  fed  corn  alone 
made  the  smallest  daily  gains  and  the  most  expensive  gains. 

The  cheapest  gains  Avere  made  by  the  lot  fed  com,  barley, 
and  shorts,  though  this  lot  stood  third  in  rate  of  gain. 

The  largest  gains  were  made  by  the  meat  meal  group,  but 
the  high  price  of  the  meat  meal  runs  up  the  cost  out  of  pro- 
portion to  the  rate  of  gain. 

In  this  experiment,  meat  meal  proved  superior  to  tankage 
as  a  supplementary  feed  with  corn. 

Meat  Meal. — A  second  experiment  by  the  Iowa  Experi- 
ment Station  was  conducted  with  different  proportions  of 
Armour's  meat  meal  with  com  as  compared  with  com  alone. 
Thirty-six  pigs,  averaging  137  pounds  in  weight,  wore  divided 
into  four  groups  and  fed  100  days. 

Lot  1.      Corn  meal  7  parts,  meat  meal  1  ]iart. 

Lot  2.     Corn  meal  8V^  parts,  meat  meal    1    ])art. 
Lot  3.     Corn  meal  10  parts,  meat  meal  1  part. 
Lot  4.     Com  meal  alone. 

The  average  daily  gain  per  pig,  the  feed  consumed  per 
100  pounds  gain,  and  the  cost  of  100  pounds  gain  were  as 
follows : 


SUPPLEMENTARY  FEEDS  \MTH  CORN 


155 


Average 
daily 
gain. 

Feed 

per  100  lbs. 

gain 

Cost  of 
100  lbs. 
gain. 

Corn. 

Meat  meal 

Total. 

I/Ot  1.     Corn    7,    meat 
lueiil  1 

lbs. 

1.74 

1.7S 

1.85 
1.16 

lbs. 

381.6 

409.2 

409.9 
556.6 

lbs. 
54.5 
47.9 
40.9 

lbs. 

436.1 

457.1 

450.8 
556.6 

$3.73 

Lot  2.    Corn    832.   meat 
meal  1 

$3.81 

Lot  3.      Corn    10,   meat 
meal  1 

$3.68 

Lot  4.     Corn  alone 

$3.97 

Til  (M>iiij)iitini>:  tlie  cost,  corn  meal  was  valued  at  71.4  cents 
I  111'  luuidred-wciglit,  and  Armour's  meat  meal  at  $37.00  per 
ton. 

Ir  will  1)0  noted  that  tlie  lot  receiving  10  parts  com  to  1 
part  meat  meal  made  tlie  most  rapid  and  the  cheapest  gains. 

As  in  the  first  experiment,  the  hogs  fed  corn  alone  made 
the  slowest  and  most  expensive  gains. 

The  report  of  the  experiment  states :  "  The  pigs  in  all 
lots  were  uniformly  very  fat,  and  the  difference  in  gain  be- 
tween the  lots  getting  meat  meal  and  the  one  getting  corn 
alone  seems  to  have  been  mostly  in  growth,  although  the  meat 
meal  pigs  showed  smoother,  glossier  hair." 

Meat  Meal,  Tankage,  and  Shorts. — ^A  third  experiment  of 
the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  had  for  its  object  the  comparison 
of  Armour's  meat  meal  and  Swift's  digester  tankage  witli 
shorts,  as  supi)lements  to  a  com  ration  with,  young  growing 
pigs.  As  the  pigs  were  young,  averaging  60  pounds  in  weight, 
it  was  not  tliought  advisable  to  feed  any  of  them  corn  alone 
in  dry  lots.  The  lots  that  were  fed  com  as  the  only  concentrate 
were  pastured  on  timothy  or  clover  pasture.  Altogether,  100 
pigs  were  used,  and  divi<lcd   into  t«n  groups  of  ten  ])igs  each. 

Tankage  an<l  meat  meal  were  fed  in  the  proj^ortion  of  one 
pai*t  tankage  or  meat  meal  U>  five  parts  com  meal. 


156        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

ShorUi  wore  fcil  in  two  |)rupurti(»ns, — ■iiainoly,  one  of  shorts 
to  two  of  com  meal,  and  one  of  shorts  to  one  of  corn  meal. 

The  experiment  lasted  112  days. 

Leading  Points. — There  are  many  interesting  details  of 
this  exjXTimeut  which  cannot  be  given  here,  and  only  the 
leading  points  will  be  referred  to. 

1.  Meat  meal  and  tankage  proved  practically  eqnal  as 
supplements  to  corn  in  point  of  producing  gains,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  following  statement : 

Ration.  Gain  per  hog. 

Corn  and  meat  meal  on  pasture 1G4.9  lbs. 

Corn  and  tankage  on  pasture 162.9  lbs. 

Corn  and  meat  meal   in  drj'  lot 128.8  lbs. 

Corn  and  tankage  in  dry  lot 128.8  lbs. 

2.  The  number  of  bushels  of  com  replaced  by  one  ton  of 
supplementary  feed  was  as  follows: 

Ration 

Corn  2,  siiorts  1 One  ton  shorts  replaced  4G.G  bu.  corn 

Corn   1,  shorts  1 One  ton  shorts  replaced  45.;i  bu.  corn 

Corn  5,  meat  meal  1.  .  .One  ton  meat  meal  replaced  57.9  bu.  corn 
Corn  5,  tankage  1 One  ton  tankage  replaced  64.4  bu.  corn 

From  this  stand-i)oint,  tankage  proved  most  etfective. 

3.  When  the  hogs  were  upon  pasture,  shorts  compared 
favorably  with  meat  meal.  The  average  total  conamtrates  re- 
quired for  100  pomids  gain  in  the  case  of  hogs  fed  corn  and 
shorts  on  pasture  was  403.5)  pounds;  in  the  case  of  the  hogs 
fed  meat  meal  and  com  it  was  409.6  pounds;  for  the  hogs 
fed  tankage  and  com,  it  was  398.4  pounds. 

4.  In  the  drs'  lots  the  highly  nitrogenous  feeds,  meat  meal 
and  tankage,  showed  to  best  advantage  as  compared  with  shorts, 
the  average  total  feed  requirements  for  100  pounds  gain  being 


SUPPLEMENTARY  FEEDS  WITH  CORN  157 

494.7  pounds  fur  the  shorts  and  corn  lots,  409.9  ponnds  for 
the  meat  meal  and  corn  lot,  and  4G0.4  pounds  for  the  tiinkage 
and  com  lot. 

5.  Among  the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  experiment,  the 
following  statements  occur: 

"  Meat  meal  and  tankage  of  similar  chemical  composition 
are  almost  eijual,  pound  for  pound,  as  a  supplement  to  a 
com  ration  for  growing  pigs  and  fattening  hogs." 

"  Hogs  fed  on  rations  composed  of  corn  and  meat  meal, 
and  corn  and  tiinkage,  were  fully  as  acceptable  to  the  buyers, 
both  from  the  stand-point  of  the  quality  and  condition  of  the 
flesh,  as  those  fed  on  any  other  rations  used." 

''  Both  meat  meal  and  tankage  are  more  valuable  adjuncts 
to  the  com  ration  for  dry  lot  feeding  than  when  pigs  or  hogs 
are  being  developed  and  fattened  on  pasture,  especially  if  the 
pasture  be  composed  of  leguminous  crops." 

"  A  ration  of  one-half  com  and  one-half  shorts  produced 
greater  gains  with  less  feed  per  100  pounds  of  gain,  botli  on 
pasture  and  dry  lot  feeding,  than  a  ration  of  two-thirds  corn 
and  one-third  shorts." 

Skim-Milk. — From  a  test  with  skim-milk,  tankage,  linseed 
meal,  soy-bean  meal,  and  wheat  middlings  as  supplements  to 
com  meal,  conducted  at  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station,  the 
following  conclusions  are  draA\Ti : 

"  Skim-milk,  tankage,  linseed  meal,  so^'-bean  meal,  and 
middlings  proved  to  be  verv^  efficient  supplements  to  com 
meal." 

''  Hosrs  fed  on  com  meal  and  skim-milk  consumed  more 
feed,  made  a  greater  increase  in  live  weight  with  a  smaller 
amount  of  feed  and  dry  matter,  and  at  less  expense  than 
similar  lots  fe<l  on  com  meal  supplemented  by  tankage,  linseed 
meal,  soy-bean  meal,  or  middlings." 


158         RESULTS  OF  EXPERLMEXTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

"  Tankairo  ranked  second  to  skini-niilk,  followed  ver\' 
closely  bv  niiddlin^-s,  soy-bean  meal,  and  linseed  meal  as  sup- 
plements to  com  meal." 

"  There  was  less  cash  outlay  for  tankao:e  than  for  any  other 
commercial  nitropjenous  feed,  and  a  greater  ]iro]iortion  of  corn 
could  1x3  used  with  it." 

"  The  value  of  skim-milk  was  found  to  be: 

26.5  cents  per  cwt.  as  'omparoil  with   linseed  meal  at  $1..>0  per  cwt. 

24.  cents  per  cwt.  as  compared  with  soy-bean    meal  at  .fl.oO  per  cwt. 

22.9  cents  per  cwt.  as  compared  with  tankafre  at  $2.00  per  cwt. 

28.  cents  per  cwt.  as  compared  witli  iiiiddlinnjs  at   l.'i.'i  per  cwt. 

"  Skim-milk  has  j)roved  to  be  the  most  efficient  supplement 
to  shelled  corn  or  a  m  meal  used  in  the  experimental  feed 
lots  at  the  station  for  the  past  five  years  in  fattening  hogs." 

"  Tankage  has  been  the  most  efficient  commercial  feed 
used  as  a  supplement  to  com  in  fattening  hogs  under  market 
conditions  prevailing  during  the  past  five  years." 

Sihorts,  Skim-Milk,  Tankage,  Ground  Bone,  Alfalfa 
Pasture. — The  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  conducted  a 
series  of  experiments  with  shorts,  skim-milk.  Swift's  digester 
tankage,  and  steamed  ground  bone. 

Following  are  the  rations  used : 

Corn  meal  alone. 

Com  meal  75  per  cent,  shorts  25  ]>er  cent. 

Com  meal  25  per  cent,  skim-milk  75  per  cent. 

Com  meal  90  per  cent,  tankage  10  per  cent. 

Com  meal  1)5  per  cent,  tankage  5  per  cent. 

Corn   meal  00   ]X'r  cent,  steamed  ground  bone  10  pov  cent. 

During  part  of  the  time  the  hogs  were  on  alfalfa  pasture, 
so  that  it  is  possible  to  study  the  effect  of  alfalfa  with  corn. 
The  last  experiment  brings  out  the  comparison  very  clearly, 
as  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


SUPPLEMENTARY  FEEDS  WITH  CORN 


159 


On  alfalfa  pasture. 


Feed  for 
100  pounds  gain . 


Cost. 


In  dry  lot. 


Feed  for 
100  pounds  gain. 


Cost. 


Corn  meal  alone ..." 

Corn  75  per  cent,  shorts  25 

per  cent 

Corn  25  per  cent,  skim  milk 

75  per  cent 

Corn  90  per  cent,  tankage  10 

per  cent 

Corn  90  per  cent,  ground  bone 

10  per  cent 


lbs. 

343 


\  7 


336 

249* 
704t 

322 


336 


$2.38 
$2.64 
$3.19 
$2.72 
$2.62 


lbs. 
543 

533 

f  385*) 
\  1063t  / 

487 
533 


$3.88 
$4.18 
$4.87 
$4.10 
$4.17 


*  Corn. 


t  Skim-milk. 


In  computing  tlie  cost,  com  was  valued  at  40  cents  per 
bushel,  shorts  at  $20.00  per  ton,  skim-milk  at  20  cents  per 
hundred  pound.'^.  tankag-e  at  $-i0.00  per  ton,  and  ground  bone 
at  $30.00  per  ton. 

Besults. — It  will  be  noted  that  while  the  hogs  were  upon 
alfalfa  pasture  the  amoimt  of  com  required  for  100  pounds 
of  gain,  with  the  lot  fed  com  meal  alone,  compares  very 
favorably  with  the  other  groups ;  but  when  the  hogs  were  put 
into  dry  lots  the  feed  for  100  pounds  gain  in  the  com  group 
is  much  higher  than  in  the  tankage  group.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  com  and  shorts  group  as  compared  with  the  corn  and 
tankage  group,  so  that  here  we  find  the  same  result  as  was 
found  in  the  Iowa  experiments. 

If  the  same  values  for  feeds  were  used  in  the  Xebraska 
experiments  as  were  used  in  the  Iowa  experiments,  the  sup- 
plementary feeds  would  make  a  better  showing. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  in  Nebraska  the  hogs 
were  kept  upon  alfalfa  pasture  until  they  were  well  grown,  and, 
in  consequence,  were  in  the  best  possible  shape,  to  stand  ex- 
clusive com  feeding  in  the  dry  lota. 


160         RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

Followin<>'  are  suiir'  points  taken  from  Professor  Burnett's 
conclusions  in  connection  with  the  investiffation : 

A\Tien  pigs  were  in  a  dry  lot,  the  use  of  tankage  as  about 
5  per  cent  of  the  ration  generally  reduced  the  cost  of  the  pork 
produced. 

All  these  experiments  tend  to  show  the  suitahilitj  of  corn 
and  alfalfa  as  a  ration  for  hogs. 

The  lot  receiving  com  and  steamed  ground  bone  show  gains 
at  practically  the  same  cost  as  the  lot  receiving  5  per  cent 
tankage.  The  lot  receiving  ground  bone  required  more  feed 
for  100  pounds  of  gain,  but  the  ground  bone  cost  less  per 
ton. 

Skim-milk  at  20  cents  per  100  pounds  proved  the  most 
expensive  supplementary  feed  used. 

Wliere  supplementary  feeds  were  used,  the  hogs  generally 
made  more  rapid  gains  and  reached  heavier  weights  in  a  given 
length  of  time. 

In  a  test  of  the  breaking  strength  of  the  bones  of  tlie  hogs 
in  the  Nebraska  experiments,  it  was  found  that  they  stood 
in  the  following  order  in  point  of  strength  of  bone:  Com  and 
ground  bone,  corn  and  tankage,  com  and  skim-milk,  corn  and 
shorts,  com  alone. 

Tankage  vs.  Linseed  Meal. — The  Indiana  Experiment 
Station  reports  four  tests  in  wliieli  Swift's  digester  tankage 
was  fed  in  comparison  with  linseed  meal  as  a  sui)plement 
to  corn. 

The  proi)ortion  of  tankage  to  com  meal  was  1  to  10  in  the 
first  test,  1  to  32  in  the  second,  1  to  20  in  the  third,  and  1  to  15 
in  the  fourth. 

In  each  test  the  proportion  of  linseed  meal  to  com  meal 
was  twice  as  great  as  the  proportion  of  tankage  to  com  meal, 
the  linseed  meal  being  poorer  in   protein   than  the  tankage. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  FEEDS  WITH  CORN  161 

Com  was  valiK'd  at  $1S.()U  i)er  ton,  tankage  at  $40.00  por 
ton,  and  okl  process  linsood  meal  at  $.'50.00  jier  t^»n. 

In  two  tests  linseed  meal  proved  slightly  more  economical 
than  tankage,  and  in  the  other  two  tankage  had  a  fairly  marked 
advantage. 

The  averages  of  the  four  tests  show  the  feed  requirements 
and  cost  of  100  pounds  of  gain  to  be  as  follows: 

Corn  meal  and  tankape:  370  lbs.  corn.  24.5  lbs.  tankage,  costing  $3.82. 
Corn  meal  and  linseed  meal:    363.6   lbs.  corn,  46.2   lbs.   linseed  meal, 
costing  $3.96. 

Conclusions. — It  is  noted  in  the  summary  that  hogs  fed 
on  a  ration  of  corn  meal  and  tankage  consume  more  feed  and 
make  more  rapid  gains  than  hogs  fed  a  ration  of  com  meal  and 
linseed  meal. 

Also,  that  a  ration  of  com  meal  and  tankage  gives  a  better 
finish  than  one  of  com  meal  and  linseed  meal. 

Soy-Bean  Meal  vs.  Linseed  Meal. — Indiana  also  reports 
two  tests  comparing  soy-bean  meal  with  linseed  meal  as  sup- 
plements to  com. 

In  the  first  test,  5  parts  of  com  meal  were  fed  ^vith  1  part 
of  linseed  meal  or  soy-bean  meal.  In  the  second  test,  8  parts  of 
com  meal  were  fed  ^vith  1  part  of  linseed  meal,  and  7  parts  of 
corn  meal  with  1  part  of  soy-bean  meal. 

Linseed  meal  and  soy-bean  meal  are  botli  valued  at  $30.00 
per  ton,  and  com  meal  at  $18.00  per  ton. 

On  an  average  of  the  results  of  the  two  trials,  it  required 
for  100  pounds  of  gain  : 

Com  meal  and  linseed  meal,  378  pounds,  costing  $3.71. 

Com  meal  and  soy-bean  meal,  3G0  pounds,  costing  $3.55. 

The  percentage  of  protein  in  linseed  meal  and  soy-bean  meal 
13  very  similar,  and,  though  soy-bean  meal  showed  an  advantage 
11 


162        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

over    linseed    meal    in    these    tests,    the    difference    is    slight. 

Liiiseed  Meal. — E.  B.  Forbes,  of  the  Missouri  Experiment 
Station,  reports  results  of  an  experiment  in  which  100  pounds 
of  a  mixture  of  five  parts  corn  to  one  part  linseed  meal  proved 
equal  to  nearly  14S  pounds  of  corn  alone. 

Tankage. — The  Indiana  Experiment  Station  was  among  the 
first  to  test  tankage  as  a  supplement  to  corn.  In  this  trial,  feeds 
were  valued  as  follows :  Corn  meal,  $20.00  per  ton ;  shorts,  $16.00 
per  ton ;  tankage  $30.00  per  ton.  This  method  of  valuing  feeds 
is  very  much  more  in  favor  of  tankage,  as  compared  with  corn, 
than  the  system  followed  in  Nebraska. 

The  cost  of  100  pounds  of  gain  was  as  follows: 

Lot  I.     10  parts  corn  meal,   1  Lot  III.  Corn  meal  only   ....    $5.20 

part  tankage   $3.80  Lot    IV.  10   parts   mixture  of 

Lot  II.     5  parts  corn  meal,   1  corn  and  middlings,   1    part 

part  tankage   4.00  tankage     3.60 

There  were  four  pigs  in  each  lot,  and  lot  I  gained  4.63  pounds 
per  day;  lot  II,  4.91  pounds;  lot  III,  2.68  pounds;  and  lot  IV, 
4.55:  a  striking  illustration  in  favor  of  tankage. 

Cottonseed  Meal. — The  Alabama  Station  reports  tests  with 
cottonseed  meal  as  a  supplementary  feed  with  corn.  In  two 
tests  the  feed  was  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  cotton- 
seed meal  to  9  parts  corn,  by  weight.  The  average  for  two 
years  shows  feed  for  100  pounds  gain  as  follows: 

Corn    alone     727  lbs. 

Corn  and  cottonseed  meal    43()  lbs. 

In  a  third  test,  a  third  group  was  added  to  which  was  fed 
1  part  cottonseed  meal  to  2  parts  corn.  Feed  required  for  100 
pounds  gain  was  as  follows: 

Corn   alone 581  lbs. 

Corn   Vio,   cottonseed   meal  Vio, 389  Iba. 

Corn  %,  cottonseed  meal  %, 354  lbs. 

None  of  the  pigs  showed  any  ill  effects  from  cottonseed  meal 
in  the  three  tests  noted,  but  in  another  test,  all  of  the  pigs,  but 
one,  fed  cottonseed  meal,  were  dead  before  the  experiment  had 


SUFPLEMENTARV   FEEDS  WITH  CX)RN  163 

been  in  progress  SI  days.  It  is  stated  that  there  is  a  risk  in 
feeding  cottonseed  meal.  It  is  claimed,  however,  that  cottonseed 
meal  can  be  fed  with  safety,  even  in  large  amounts,  for  periods 
of  not  more  than  25  days.  When  no  deaths  occurred,  cotton- 
seed meal  proved  equal  to  tankage  as  a  supplementary  feed 
with  corn.* 

Summary. — Many  other  instances  of  the  effect  of  supplementary  feeds 
with  corn  might  be  given  if  space  permitted.  Sufficient  tests  have  been 
quoted  to  establish  a  few  important  points  which  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows : 

1.  Com  alone  falls  far  short  of  being  an  ideal  ration  for  hogs.  It  is 
especially  injurious  to  young  pigs,  resulting  in  lack  of  growth,  weakness 
of  bone,  and  expensive  gains. 

2.  When  wisely  combined  with  a  feed  relatively  rich  in  protein,  corn 
makes  one  of  the  best  hog  feeds  obtainable. 

3.  Pasture,  either  grass  or  clover,  makes  a  good  supplement  to  corn, 
clover  and  alfalfa  l)eing  especially  desirable. 

4.  \'ery  liigli-priced  protein  feeds,  such  as  tankage  and  meat  meal, 
must  be  used  in  small  proportions,  and  give  best  relative  returns  when  used 
in  dry-lot  feeding. 

5.  When  hogs  are  on  pasture,  a  comparatively  cheap  feed,  such  as 
wheat  middlings,  will  supplement  corn  to  better  advantage  than  expensive 
feeds  like  tankage  and  meat  meal. 

6.  Where  soy-beans  can  be  grown  to  advantage,  they  constitute  a 
valuable  feed  to  use  as  a  supplement  to  corn. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  is  the  need  of  supplementary  feed  to  be  used  with  corn? 

2.  What  is  found  to  be  the  effect  of  blood  meal  and  pea  meal?     Why? 

3.  What  is  the  special  need  of  such  feed  as  bone  meal  and  hard-wood 
ashes  as  a  supplement  to  corn? 

4.  Give  the  effect  of  using  each  feed  discussed  in  this  chapter  along 
with  corn. 

*  Tliere  is  evidently  considerable  risk  in  feeding  cottonseed  meal  to 
hogs,  though  the  exact  danger  point  has  not  l)een  determined.  It  is  not 
profitable  to  run  much  risk  in  the  use  of  this  feed,  since  the  difference  in 
cost  between  cottonseed  meal  and  other  feeds  that  are  considered  safer 
is  now  very  small. 

The  North  Carolina  Station  has  shown  that  giving  iron  sulfate  in  the 
drinking  water,  1  pound  to  .50  gallons  of  water,  or  slop,  will  overcome  the 
poisonous  effects  of  cottonseed  meal  for  pigs.  See  "  Productive  Feeding  of 
Farm  Animals,"  bv  Woll. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  BY-PRODUCTS. 

Peas  or  Canada  Field  Peas. — This  grain  is  comparatively 
little  known  in  the  United  States,  and  is  used  to  a  smaller 
extent  for  pig  feeding  in  Canada  than  it  was  some  years  ago, 
mainly  owing  to  the  high  price  it  commands  for  other  pui*poses. 
(Eig.  41.) 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  kStation,  hogs  fed  ground  peas  and 
bran,  equal  parts,  made  iin  averagX'  daily  gain  of  1.09  pounds 
and  required  o63  pounds  of  meal  for  100  pounds  of  gain; 
while  hogs  fed  corn  and  bran  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  .63 
pound  and  required  455  pounds  of  meal  for  100  pounds  of 
gain. 

At  tJie  South  Dakota  Station,  the  daily  gain  of  pigs  fed 
whole  soaked  peas  was  1.21  pounds,  and  for  soaked  corn  meal 
1.40  pounds;  but  the  grain  required  for  100  pounds  gain 
was  421  pounds  for  tlie  pea  group  and  458  pounds  for  the 
com  lot. 

The  Ontario  Agricultural  College  found  that  feeding  pea 
meal  alone  was  injurious  to  pigs,  the  heavy,  close  nature  of 
the  meal  making  it  indigestible.  This  peculiarity  of  pea  meal 
is  generally  recognized.  Pea  meal  alone  was  less  satisfactory 
tliaii  corn  meal  alone,  but  wlicn  mixed  witli  one-third  of  its 
weight  of  wheat  middlings,  it  gave  mucli  better  results  than 
com  meal. 

The  pea  meal  is  very  rich  in  ]u-otein  and  should  make  a 
good  supplementary  feed  with  com. 

Barley. — Barley  is  riclier  in  bone-  and  muscle-forming  con- 
stituents than  corn,  having  a  higher  percentage  of  ash  and 
protein.     In  fattening  constituents  it  is  scarcely  equal  to  com. 

(164) 


VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  HV-PRODUCTS  165 

Till-  Wisconsin  Experimeut  Station  reports  two  feeding 
trials  with  barley  and  eora.  In  the  first  trial  the  p-ains  were 
fed  alone,  and  in  the  second  they  were  fed  with  skini-milk. 

The   first    of   the   two   trials   shows    that   it    required    471 


Fio.  41. — Oats  and  peas  sown  in  early  spring  may  be  cut  when  ripe,  and  the  two  threshed 
out  together.     The  grinding  for  hog  feed  may  be  either  together  or  separately. 

pounds  of  barley   to   produce   100   jjounds  of  gain,   and  435 
pounds  of  corn  to  produce  100  jwunds  of  gain. 

In  tlie  second  trial  it  required  330  pounds  of  barley  and 
3^8  pounds  of  skim-milk  for  100  pounds  gain,  and  306  pounds 
of  com  and  371  pounds  of  milk  for  100  pounds  gain.  In  each 
trial,  therefore,  it  required  more  barley  than  corn  for  100 
pounds  gain. 


166        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

The  South  Dakota  Station  found  barley  and  corn  prac- 
tically equal  as  pork  producers,  it  requiring  453  pounds  of 
corn  and  457  pounds  of  barley,  respectively,  for  100  pounds 
of  gain. 

Colorado  and  Ontario  experiments  were  in  favor  of  barley 
as  compared  with  corn. 

The  first  Wisconsin  trial  gave  the  most  marked  results  in 
favor  of  corn,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  hogs  in  this 
trial  averaged  over  200  pounds  in  weight  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  trial.  Wliere  younger  hogs  were  used,  barley 
made  a  better  showing  as  compared  with  corn.  There  is  little 
doubt  that,  considered  as  a  fat  former,  corn  is  superior  to 
barley,  and  hence  well-grown  pig"s  would  be  able  to  stand  ex- 
clusive corn  feeding  much  better  than  younger  pigs.  The 
A\Titcr's  experience  would  lead  him  to  prefer  barley  to  corn 
as  a  meal  ration  for  growing  pigs,  and  this  view  is  borne  out 
by  the  experiments  noted.  The  extensive  use  made  of  barley 
for  swine  feeding  in  Canada,  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  and 
otlier  countries,  is  strong  evidence  of  its  value. 

One  disadvantage  of  barley  is  the  fact  that  it  is  not  eaten 
so  readily  by  pigs  as  one  might  wish,  and  should  be  mixed 
with  some  other  feed  to  increase  its  i)alatubility.  Barley  is 
well  adapted  to  mixing  with  corn  as  a  ration  for  almost  any 
class  of  pigs. 

Wheat. — Wheat  has  been  ex])erinicnt('d  with,  more  or  less, 
as  a  feed  for  swine,  and  results  show  that  there  is  comparatively 
little  difference  between  wheat  and  corn  in  feeding  value. 
Wheat  contains  less  fibre  than  barley,  but  ground  wheat  alone 
can  hardly  be  regarded  as  a  satisfactory  ration,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  it  is  likely  to  cause  digestive  troubles.  It  gives  much 
better  results  when  mixed  with  other  meal,  and  combines  well 
M-ith  com.  As  a  general  thing,  feeding  sound  wheat  is  out 
of  the  question,  owing  to  its  relatively  high  price.     It  is  only 


VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  BY-PRODUCTS 


167 


under  exceptional  circumstances  that  it  can  be  counted  among 
feeds  for  swine. 

The  Wyoming  Station  secured  better  gains  for  feed  con- 
sumed from  wheat  than  from  com  in  each  of  two  tests,  reported 
in  Bulletin  74. 

Frosted  Wheat. — In  some  years,  considerable  of  this 
product  is  placed  upon  the  market.  In  the  northern  belt,  wheat 
may  be  sufficiently  injured  by  frost  to  render  it  unfit  for 
milling,  and  yet  be  practically  equal  to  sound  wheat  for  feeding 
puii^oses.  Frozen  wheat  varies  much  in  character,  depending 
on  the  degree  of  maturity  reached  by  the  grain  before  frost. 

In  his  evidence  before  the  Committee  on  Agriculture,  J.  H. 
Grisdale,  of  the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Canada,  gives 
details  of  swine  feeding  experiments  with  frozen  wheat,  fed 
alone  and  combined.     This  table  brings  out  the  main  points : 


Average  weight 

Average 

Pounds  meal 

Character    of    Ration. 

of  pigs  at 

daily 

per  100  pounds 

commencement 

gain. 

gain. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Lot  1.    No.  1   frozen  wheat  2 

parts  shorts  1  piirt 

99.1 

.76 

390 

Lot  2.    No.   1  frozen  wheat  2 

parts,  corn  1  part 

76. 

.77 

370 

Lot  3.    No.  2  frozen  wheat  2 

parts,  com  1  part 

118.2 

1.03 

390 

Lot  4.    No.  2  frozen  wheat  only 

140 

1.23 

360 

Lot  5.    No.  2  frozen  wheat  only 

85 

.71 

380 

Lot  6.    No.  2  frozen  wheat  2 

parts,  barley  1  part 

104.1 

.81 

410 

Lot  7.    No.   i  frozen  wheat  2 

parts,  oats  1  part 

112.1 

1.02 

390 

Lot  8.    No.   1  frozen  wheat  2 

parts,  oats  1  part 

74.2 

.66 

390 

Lot  9.    No.  2  frozen  wheat  with 

3  lbs.  skim-milk  daily  per  pig 

99. 

.86 

340 

Ix)t  10.  No.  1  frozen  wheat  only 

1.50.4 

.94 

410 

Lot  11-  No.  1  frozen  wheat  only 

96.3 

.79 

390 

Lot  12.    Equal  parts  No.  1  froz- 

en wheat,  No.  2  frozen  wheat, 

and  corn 

124.8 

.94 

470 

168        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

It  is  unsafe  to  make  comparisons  of  the  different  rations, 
but  the  table  fails  to  show  any  advantage  of  the  Xo.  1  frozen 
wheat  over  the  Xo.   2. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  experiment  is  tlie 
uniformly  good  results  obtained  with  all  the  groups,  indicating 
frozen  wheat  to  be  a  valuable  feed  for  swine. 

The  same  would  probably  be  found  of  wheat  slightly 
aif(>{'ted  with  smut  disease,  and  of  otherwise  shrnnken  wheat. 
(Fig.  42.) 

Frozen  Wheat  vs.  Barley. — At  tlie  Ontario  Agrieidtnral 
College,   tlie   writer  fed   three  lots  of  pigs  to  compare  frozen 


Fio.   42. — Clood  pluiiii)  wheat   :it   the  left;  a  poor  typo  at  the  richt.  wiili  narrow  shnvoleil 
kernels,  suitable  for  hog  feed. 


wlieat  with  l)ai-l(y.     The  frozen  wheat  tested  (»nly  Vo^-j  poumls 
per  bushel. 

Lot   1   contained    IS   ])igs   and   was  fed   ground   bnrhy   and 
wheat  middlings. 

Lot  2  contained  20  i)igs  and  was  fed  ground  frozen  wlieat 
and  wheat  middlings. 

Lot  3  contained   1^   pigs   and   was  fed   ground   barley   and 
frozen  wheat,  equal  ])arts,  with  middlings. 

•  The  ]>ro]>ortion  of  mi(bllings  varied,  being  reduced   as  the 
experiment   ])i'ogressed,  but  was  the  same  lor  all  lots. 

The   pigs    in    lot     1    averaged     11    jxainds    in    weight    at    the 
start,  lot   2.  .'57.7  ])ounds,  and  lot  '■).  .")!..")  pounds. 

Lot    1   made  an  average  daily  gain  per  pig  of  l.OS  pounds, 
lot  2,    1.1   pounds,  and  lot  3,  I.IS  ])ounds. 


VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  BY-PRODUCTS 


169 


The  amount  of  meal  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain  was 
as  follows: 

Lot  1,  430.9  pounds;  lot  2,  431.4  pounds;  lot  3,  432.0 
pounds. 


Fig.  43. — Biack-hulled  white   kafir,  much  grown   in  dry  climates  to  use  in  place  of  corn 
(Experiment  Station,  Kana.) 

Both  in  rate  of  gain  and  feed  consumed  per  100  pounds 
gain,  the  three  rations  may  be  said  to  have  given  practically 
the  same  results.  In  this  experiment,  therefore,  we  find  that 
frozen  wheat  has  proved  quite  equal  to  barley  when  fed  with 
middlings. 

Oats. — Owing  to  their  high  percentage  of  fibre,  oats  do  not 
possess  a  high  value  for  fattening  hogs.  When  used  at  all. 
they  should  be  used  as  a  comparatively  small  part  only  of  the 


170         RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

ration,  and  they  show  to  best  advantage  when  used  to 
lighten  and  give  more  bulk  to  a  heavy,  close-textured  meal, 
such  as  pea  meal,  or  even  corn  meal.  They  are  especially 
useful  for  making  up  part  of  the  ration  of  boars  or  breeding 
sows,  where  the  aim  is  to  maintain  vigor  without  unduly 
fattening. 

Rye. — Extensive  Danish  experiments,  summarized  by  Pro- 
fessor Henry  in  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  indicate  that  rye  and 
barley  are  about  equal  in  value  for  pig  feeding.  Very  little 
experimental  work  witli  the  grain  of  this  cereal  has  been  done 
in  America.  Rye  meal  is  l)est  fed  in  combination  with  other 
kinds  of  meal. 

Kafir. — At  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station,  it  was  found 
that  corn  meal  had  a  feeding  value  of  from  17  to  29  per  cent 
higher  than  kafir  meal.  The  addition  of  soy-bean  meal  to  kafir 
to  the  extent  of  one-third  of  the  ration  materially  improved  its 
value,  but  did  not  make  it  equal  to  a  similar  mixture  of  com 
meal  and  soy-bean  meal.     (Fig.  43.) 

Buckwheat. — The  rentral  Experimental  Farm,  Canada,  re- 
ports two  trials  in  wliicli  l)nckwheat  was  compared  with  wheat. 
In  the  first  trial,  ground  l)nekwheat  was  fed  against  ground 
wheat,  and  in  this  trial  445  pounds  of  gronnd  buckwheat  were 
required  for  100  pounds  gain,  and  410  pounds  ground  wheat 
for  100  pounds  gain. 

In  the  set'ond  trial,  one  lot  of  pigs  was  fed  a  mixture  of 
one-half  ground  buckwheat  and  one-half  mixed  meal,  and  the 
other  lot  a  mixture  of  one-half  gi'ound  wheat  and  one-half 
mixed  meal.  In  this  trial  it  required  40.5  pounds  of  the  buck- 
wheat mixture  for  100  pounds  of  gain,  and  380  pounds  of 
the  wheat  mixture  for  100  pounds  of  gain.  This  is  a  much 
better  sho^ving  for  buckwheat  than  might  be  expected,  since 
buckwheat  has  a  thick,  fibrous  hull  wliich  the  hog  cannot  digest. 


VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  171 

Grouiiil  wheat  showed  an  advantage  of  only  ahout  8^/2  per  cent 
over  ground  buckwheat,  and  the  wlieat  mixture  an  advantage 
of  C)i  o  jx'r  cent  over  the  buckwheat  mixture. 

Emmer. — This  grain  is  commonly  known  as  "  spelt "  or 
"  speltz."  Genuine  spelt  is  a  distinct  plant,  possessing  general 
characters  similar  to  emmer,  but  is  a  smaller  yielder  and 
possesses  about  ten  per  cent  more  hull  than  emmer. 

The  South  Dakota  Station  rei)orts  one  experiment  Avith 
emmer,  imder  the  name  of  "■  speltz."  One  lot  of  hogs  was 
fed  whole  emmer,  one  ground  emmer,  and  one  emmer  and 
corn.  ^Vliole  emmer  required  771  pounds  of  feed  for  100 
pounds  of  gain,  ground  emmer  826  pounds,  and  emmer  and 
com  529  pounds.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  marked  improve- 
ment was  effected  when  corn  was  added  to  the  emmer.  Appar- 
ently emmer  has  too  much  hull  or  husk  (about  21  per  cent) 
to  make  a  first-class  hog  feed.  Its  rational  use  would  be  for 
mixing  with  concentrated,  heavy  meals  to  give  more  bulk  to 
the  ration. 

Millet  Seed. — The  South  Dakota  Station  (Bulletin  83) 
reports  a  comparison  of  millet  seed  with  barley  and  wheat. 
The  authors  of  the  bulletin  state  that  millet  seed  can  be 
grown  profitably  as  a  fattening  ration  for  swine,  but  it  does 
not  furnish  as  good  a  ration  as  barley  or  wlieat.  It  is  also 
stated  that  it  required  one-fifth  more  millet  than  it  did  barley 
meal,  and  a  trifle  more  barley  meal  tlian  it  did  wheat  to 
make  a  pound  of  gain,  and  that  a  bushel  of  56  pounds  of 
millet  seed  is  equal  to  a  bushel  of  48  pounds  of  barley  for 
hog  feed.  !Millet  meal  produced  a  softer  quality  of  fat  than 
did  either  barley  or  wheat  meal. 

Beans. — Beans  are  best  thoroughly  cooked  before  they  are 
fed  to  swine.  Bulletin  243  of  the  Michigan  Experiment 
Station  reports  results  from  feeding  cull  beans  to  growing  pigs 


172 


RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 


and  fattening  pigs.  Without  going  into  details,  it  may  be 
stated  that  an  exclusive  ration  of  beans  is  not  regarded  as 
satisfactory.  For  growing  pigs,  a  ration  consisting  of  three 
parts  beans  and  four  parts  corn  meal  did  not  prove  so  satis- 
factory as  a  mixture  of  two  parts  beans,  two  parts  wheat 
middlings,  and  three  parts  corn  meal.  The  last-named  mix- 
ture gave  an  average  daily  gain  per  ])ig  of  about  one  and  one- 
third  pounds  per  day,  which  is  regarded  as  satisfactory. 

Three  trials  of  beans  compared  with  equal  parts  beans 
and  com  meal  were  made  with  fattening  hogs.  The  results 
of  the  three  trials  are  briefly  summarized  in  the  following 
table : 


Average  live  weight  of  liogs 

Average  daily  gain  i)rr  liog 

Average    feed    consumed   per    100    pounds 
gain 


Fed  equal 

parts  beans 

and  corn. 


lbs. 
159 
1.52 

406.4 


The  addition  of  corn  meal  increased  the  efHciency  of  the 
ration  about  ^Vii  pcr  cent. 

The  relative  cost  of  the  two  feeds  and  the  co.•^t  of  cooking 
would  have  to  be  considered  by  the  feeder  in  coming  to  a 
decision  regarding  the  economy  of  the  rations. 

Wheat  Middlings. — Wheat  middlings,  frequently  called 
".shorts,"  is  oiie  of  the  very  best  feeds  for  young  ]iigs.  It  is 
rich  in  bone-  and  muscle-forming  constituents,  and  d(^es  not 
tend  to  make  gi*owing  pigs  too  fat.  Its  value  as  a  supplement 
to  corn  has  already  been  noted,  and  it  combines  well  with 
almost  any  kind  of  meal.  As  a  single  feed  for  fattening,  it 
is  not  economical,  but  it  is  conducive  to  thrift  and  growth 
when  used  as  a  part  of  a  meal  ration  for  fatten inc:  pigs.     The 


VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  173 

younger  the  pig  tlie  greater  the  value  derived  from  feeding 
nn(h]liiig?^. 

Wheat  Bran. — Bran  is  too  bulky  and  fibrons  to  constitute 
a  large  part  of  a  pig's  ration,  but  is  useful  for  mature  animals, 
such  as  stock  \)oar^  and  breeding  sow:^,  or  Avhore  it  is  desired 
to  give  bulk  to  a  ration  that  is  considered  too  heavy  in  char- 
acter. As  a  rule,  however,  middlings  can  be  used  to  better 
advantage  than  bran  for  the  purjioses  mentioned. 

Flour. — \'ariniH  brands  of  low-grade  flour  are  occasionally 
put  upon  the  market.  Low-grade  flour  has  a  higher  feeding 
value  than  middlings,  bnt  is  entirely  unsuitable  for  feeding 
alone,  owing  to  its  pasty  nature.  The  writers  experience  is 
that  it  will  cause  digestive  derangement  when  fed  alone,  and 
must  be  diluted  to  a  large  extent  with  other  feeds.  Bulletin 
167  of  the  Virginia  Experiment  Station  reports  better  results 
from  soaking  low-grade  flour  than  from  feeding  it  freshly 
mixed  with  water. 

Hominy  Feed. — Purdue  Experiment  Station  reports  three 
tests  with  hominy  feed  and  shorts  compared  with  corn  meal 
and  shorts.  The  meal  was  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  two 
parts  of  hominy  feed  or  corn  to  one  part  of  shorts.  "  Hominy 
feed  or  chop  consists  of  bran  coating,  germ,  and  part  of  the 
starch  portions  of  the  corn  kernel  secured  as  a  by-product  in 
the  manufacture  of  hominy."  According  to  analyses  made  at 
Purdue,  hominy  feed  contains  about  the  same  per  cent  of 
protein  as  corn,  but  a  higher  per  cent  of  fat  and  a  slightly 
lower  per  cent  of  carlx)hydrates. 

The  average  of  three  trials  shows  the  following  result . 


Hominy  feed.  Corn  meal. 

Average  daily  gain  por  head. .ToO  pound  .030  pound 

Meal  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain....      505  pounds     598  pounds 


174 


RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 


Four  tests  were  also  made  with  hominy  feed  and  tankage 
compared  with  corn  meal  and  tankage,  mixed  in  the  proportion 
of  20  parts  hominy  feed  or  com  meal  to  1  part  of  tankage. 
The  avera5;e  of  the  four  tests  shows  the  f(^llowing: 


Average  daily  gain  per  head 

Meal  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain. 


Hominy  feed  Corn  meal 

and  tankage.  and  tankage. 

1.4       pounds  1.2       pounds 

372          pound*  4r)l           pounds 


The  results  are  summarized  as  follows : 

"  Hominy  feed  produces  more  rapid  growth  on  hogs  than 
does  com  meal." 

"  Hominy  feed  produces  gains  on  less  grain  than  does  corn 
meal." 

"As  a  general  rule  the  high  cost  of  hominy^ feed  hinders 
its  more  gt^neral  use  as  a  hog  feed,  and  prevents  its  economical 
substitution  for  com,  except  w^hen  the  latter  is  very  high  in 
price." 

It  is  also  pointed  out  that  hominy  feed,  like  com,  should 
be  supplemented  by  some  feed  high  in  protein,  such  as  tankage 
and  skim-milk. 

Com-and-Cob  Meal. — The  Iowa  Experiment  Station  re- 
ports a  test  of  com-and-cob  meal  both  dry  and  soaked,  and  a 
summary  of  the  results  is  given  l)elow.  The  test  lasted  140 
davs. 


Kind  of  feed. 

Average  daily  gain 
per  pig. 

Pound.s  porn  required 
for  100  pounds  gain 

Dry  corn 

lb. 
.74 
.63 
.72 
..56 
.61 
.51 

lbs. 
456 

Soaked  corn 

513 

Soaked  corn  meal.  ...        

555 

Soaked  corn-and-cob  meal 

5R3 

Dry  corn  meal 

505 

Dry  corn-and-cob  meal 

604 

VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  175 

Til  the  table  given  above  the  cob  has  been  deducted  from 
the  tigures  for  corn-and-cob  meal,  so  that  the  actual  corn  is 
compared  in  all  cases. 

It  cost  6  cents  per  buslu4  to  grind  the  corn-and-cob  meal, 
and  -2  cents  per  bushel  to  grind  com  meal.  The  results  of  the 
test  were  regarded  as  so  conclusive  against  com-and-cob  meal 
that  no  further  tests  were  made. 

The  Missouri  Experiment  Station  also  gives  a  decidedly 
adverse  report  upon  feeding  com-and-cob  meal  to  hogs,  but 
Kansas  and  Xew  Hampshire  report  in  its  favor. 

Gluten  Meal. — The  Central  Experimental  Farai,  Canada, 
reports  unfavoraldy  upon  gluten  meal  as  a  feed  for  swine. 
J.  H.  Grisdale  says  regarding  it:  "Gluten  has  been  fed  in 
limited  quantities,  but  has  not  proven  very  satisfactory  for 
either  bacon  production,  young  pigs,  or  breeding  stock.  It 
seems  to  be  rather  unpalatable,  and  produces  soft  bacon." 

The  Cornell  Station  also  gives  an  unfavorable  report  of  this 
feed  as  compared  with  com  when  both  feeds  were  fed  ^vith 
skim-milk. 

Linseed  Meal  (Oil  !Meal). — Linseed  meal  has  been  already 
referred  to  under  supplementary  feeds  with  corn.  It  is  seldom 
advisable  to  feed  linseed  meal  to  a  greater  extent  than  one-fifth 
of  the  total  meal  ration,  and,  as  a  rule,  half  this  quantity  will 
be  found  more  economical.  It  is  highly  recommended  by 
some  as  a  feed  for  nursing  sows,  and  for  young  pigs  after 
weaning.  The  writer  has  had  only  fair  success  in  its  use  as  a 
substitute  for  skim-milk  with  young  pigs. 

In  experiments  with  substitutes  for  skim-milk  for  young 
pigs,  the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Canada,  obtained  an 
average  daily  gain  of  six-tenths  of  a  pound  per  pig  with  a 
mixture  consisting  of  four  parts  wheat  middlings  and  one  part 
linseed  meal.     It  required  280  pounds  of  the  mixture  for  100 


176        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

pounds  of  g:ain,  which  is  a  vorv  satisfactory  showiiic".  The 
linseed  meal  was  not  so  'satisfactory  as  skim-milk,  but  gave 
better  results  than  other  substitutes  for  skim-milk  tested  at  the 
same  time. 

Cottonseed  Meal. — This  very  concentrated  feed  possesses 
some  property  which  renders  it  fatal  to  hogs  when  used  in  con- 
siderable quantities.  A  small  allowance  per  day  may  be  fed 
without  injurious  results,  but  great  care  is  necessary.  The 
Arkansas  and  Texas  Experiment  Stations  have  probably  made 
the  most  thorough  investigations  with  cottonseed  meal,  and 
their  recommendations  are  worthy  of  note. 

Arkansas  Bulletin  85  gives  the  following  quantities  of 
cottonseed  meal  per  pig  per  day  as  being  "  well  within  the 
danger  limit " : 

Pigs  under  50  pounds,  V4  pound  per  day. 
Pigs  from  50  to  75  pounds,  i/,  pound  per  day. 
Pigs  from  75  to  100  pounds,  ?    pound  per  day. 
Pigs  from  100  to  150  pounds,  i/>  pound  per  day. 

Texas  Bulletin  78  makes  the  following  recommendations : 

"  1.  For  animals  on  heavy  feed,  that  not  more  tlian  one- fourth  the 
weiglit  of  the  grain  ration  consist  of  cottonseed  meal.  2.  That  this  feeding 
continue  not  more  tlian  50  days,  or  that  the  proportion  of  meal  Ije  reduced 
if  feeding  is  to  be  continued  longer.  3.  That  the  meal  be  mixed  with 
other  feed  and  all  soured  tofietlier.  4.  Tliat  as  much  green  feed  as  possible 
Ije  supplied  to  the  liogs.  5.  Tliat  a  close  watch  Ijc  kept,  and  tiie  meal  taken 
from  any  animals  not  eating  or  not  gaining  well. 

"  Feeders  who  have  had  experience  with  the  meal  will  probably  be 
able  to  exceed  these  recommendations,  which,  however,  allow  the  use  of 
enougii  meal  to  greatly  improve  a  corn  diet.  One  pound  of  cottonseed 
meal  to  five  of  corn  furnishes  the  nutrients  in  the  most  desirable  propor- 
tions for  fattening,  while  one  or  two  of  corn  are  more  nearly  correct  for 
young,  growing  stock.'' 

Cottonseed  Meal  with  Corn  and  Rice. — Bulletin  135  of 
the  Texas  Ex})erinient  Station  reports  further  trials  of  cotton- 
seed meal  with  corn  chop  and  rough  red  rice.     Que  group  of 


VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  177 

hogs  weighed  99  pounds  each,  and  the  other  131  pounds  each 
when  the  test  commenced.  At  the  start,  one  ^roup  of  ten  liogs 
was  fed  G.5  pounds  cottonseed  meal  and  10.5  pounds  of  corn 
chop  daily,  and  the  other  group  of  ten  hogs  was  fed  7.5  pounds 
of  cottonseed  meal  and  16.5  pounds  of  rice.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  experiment,  lot  1  was  fed  12.5  pounds  of  cottonseed 
meal  and  78  pounds  of  corn  chop,  and  lot  2  was  fed  15  pounds 
of  cottonseed  meal  and  70  pounds  of  rice  daily.  At  first  the  feed 
was  given  fresh,  but  a  month  later  all  feed  was  fermented. 

The  hogs  made  satisfactory  gains,  and  no  evil  effect  was 
observed  at  any  time.  The  author  states  that  the  Station  has 
hopes  that  further  experience  will  remove  any  need  for  uneasiness 
when  feeding  cottonseed  meal  (see  Caution,  pp.  162  and  163). 

Hogs  followiTig  cattle  which  are  fed  a  considerable  amount 
of  cottonseed  meal  in  tlieir  ration  do  not  appear  to  be  in- 
juriously affected,  though  there  seem  to  be  exceptions  to  this 
rule.  Just  how  much  cottonseed  meal  can  be  fed  to  cattle  witli- 
out  injury  to  the  hogs  following  them,  does  not  appear  to  be 
definitely  settled.  Prof.  E.  T.  Robbins,  of  the  Iowa  Experi- 
ment Station,  writing  to  the  Breeder  s  Gazette,  reviews  the  ex- 
perience of  cattle  feeders  in  connection  with  this  problem,  and 
states :  "  Even  when  fed  to  steers  under  the  best  of  circum- 
stances it  may  possibly,  in  the  opinion  of  some  feeders,  be 
associated  with  an  unaccountable  mortality  among  the  hogs." 
In  summing  up,  he  says:  "  The  general  consensus  of  opinion 
is  to  the  effect  that  if  fed  in  no  larger  amounts  than  2  to  3 
pounds  daily  per  steer,  with  as  many  hogs  as  steers  in  tlie 
feed  lot,  all  danger  to  the  hogs  is  practically  eliminated." 

Oat  Feed. — This  by-product  of  the  oatmeal  mill  sometimes 

has  a  considerable  feeding  value,  but,  owing  to  the  fact  that 

it  often  contains  a  large  proportion  of  oat  hulls,  it  is  not  a 

very  satisfactory  feed  to  buy  for  swine.      Experiments  with 

oat  feed  are  not  satisfactorv,  because  the  product  is  anvthing 
12 


178         RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

but  constant  in  composition.     The  same  remarks  apply  to  all  by- 
products of  oatmeal  mills,  under  whatever  name  sold. 

Brewers'  and  Distillers'  Grains. — Grisdale,  of  the  Central 
Experimental  Farm,  reports  economical  gains  from  "  spirit 
grains  "  when  fed  in  combination  with  a  meal  ration.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  these  products  are  rather  bulky  and  fibrous 
for  swine,  unless  used  in  a  limited  quantity  as  a  supplement 
to  a  grain  ration,  in  much  the  same  way  as  alfalfa  hay  or 
roots. 

Sugar-Beet  Pulp. — In  the  wet  state  this  product  may  be 
regarded  as  similar  in  feeding  value  to  roots,  and  may  be  em- 
ployed in  exactly  the  same  way.  The  dried  pulp  is  hardly  a 
satisfactory"  feed  for  swine. 

Beet-Sugar  Molasses. — Beet  molasses  is  impalatable  and 
generally  unsatisfactory  for  swine.  Bulletin  199  of  the  Cornell 
Experiment  Station  reports  apparent  poisoning  of  hogs  fed 
beet  molasses;  and  Utah  (Bulletin  101)  reports  scouring,  and 
bad-flavored  pork. 

Black-Strap  Molasses. — Texas  Bulletin  131  reports  a  test 
with  ground  com  compared  with  ground  corn  and  black-strap 
molasses.  Three  groups  of  hogs  were  used.  Lot  1  was  fed 
equal  weights  of  ground  com  and  molasses.  Lot  2  was  fed 
two  parts  ground  corn  to  one  part  of  molasses  by  weight.  Lot  3 
was  fed  ground  com  alone.  There  were  eight  hogs  in  each 
lot,  and  the  test  lasted  91  days.  The  average  weight  of  the 
hogs  at  the  commencement  of  tlie  test  was  approximately  120 
pounds  each.  Ground  corn  was  valued  at  $28.20  per  ton,  and 
molasses  at  $16.66  per  ton. 

.  The  average  daily  gains  per  hog  and  cost  of  gain  were : 

Averace  Cost  100 

daily  gaib.  lb.  gain. 

Lot  L     Corn  and  molasses,  equal  parts 9     pound  $10.75 

Lot  2.     Corn  2  parts,  molasses   1   part 1.45  pounds  7.53 

Lot  3.     Corn   alone    1.66  pounds  7.36 


VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  179 

In  this  test  molasses  proved  lower  in  value  than  corn.  Molas- 
ses is  poor  in  protein,  and  would  likely  have  given  better  results 
if  fed  with  a  feed  richer  in  protein  than  corn. 

Sorghum  Seed. — In  a  test  at  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, one  bushel  of  corn  proved  equal  to  nearly  one  and  one-half 
bushels  of  sorghum  seed  for  feeding  hogs.  Chemical  analysis 
would  indicate  a  lower  feeding  value  for  sorghum  seed  than  fOr 
corn,  but  not  such  a  wide  difference  as  the  Nebraska  experiment 
shows.  We  would  not  expect  such  a  wide  difference  in  every 
case  where  those  feeds  are  compared. 

Cow-peas  (Seed). — The  Alabama  Station  fed  cow-peas  alone 
and  in  combination  with  corn  against  corn  alone.  The  amount 
of  meal  for  100  pounds  gain  in  weight  in  two  tests  was  as 
follows : 

let  Test.    Corn  alone  487  pounds. 

Corn  and  cow-peas,  equal  parts   433  pounds. 

Cow-peas  alone 481  pounds. 

2nd  Test.     Corn  alone    478  pounds. 

Corn  and  cow-peas,  equal  parts 395  pounds. 

At  the  South  Carolina  Station,  corn  fed  alone  required  602 
pounds  of  meal  for  100  pounds  gain  in  weight,  while  cow-peas 
required  491  pounds. 

From  these  tests  we  learn  that  cow-peas  have  a  higher  feeding 
value  than  corn,  but  they  show  to  greatest  advantage  when  com- 
bined with  corn.  As  a  supplementary  feed  with  corn,  cow-peas 
apparently  have  a  high  value. 

Spanish  Peanuts. — The  Texas  Experiment  Station  com- 
pared Spanish  peanuts  with  corn,  feeding  the  peanuts  alone 
and  in  combination  with  corn.  The  results  are  summarized  as 
follows:  ''  Spanish  peanuts  fed  alone  yielded  a  larger  gain 
than  corn  fed  alone.  The  results  indicated  that  an  acre  of 
peanuts  of  a  yield  of  forty  bushels  would  produce  approximately 


180         RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

$18.40  worth  of  pork  at  $6.25  per  100  pounds.  Peanuts 
and  eorn  combined  produced  much  more  rapid  gains  than 
peanuts  alone.  The  quality  of  pork  produced  by  peanuts  was 
nuicli  inferior  to  that  i)roduced  by  corn." 

Peanuts  contain  a  high  percentage  of  protein,  and  this 
fact  renders  them  suitable  for  feeding  with  corn,  which  is 
deficient  in  ])rotein.  Peanuts  also  contain  a  high  percentage  of 
oil,  whicli  jirobably  accounts  for  their  injurious  eflfect  upon 
the  quality  of  the  ni(>at.  It  wonhl  seem,  tluM'efore,  that  ]>oanuts 
are  most  suitable  for  young,  growing  hogs,  but  that  they  should 
not  be  f(Ml  to  hogs  during  the  finishing  period. 

Rough  Red  Rice. — The  Texas  Experiment  Station  (Bul- 
letin 1,'55)  fed  rough  red  rice  with  cottonseed  meal,  and  with 
alfalfa  meal,  as  compared  with  com  chop  fed  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  conclusion  drawn  by  the  author  is  tliat  ground 
rice  is  about  equal  to  com  chop  when  fed  with  cottonseed  meal, 
and  better  than  com  chop  when  fed  with  alfalfa  meal  for  pork 
production;  and  that  ground  rough  i-cd  i-ice  is  an  economical 
ration  for  fattening  hogs. 

Rice  By-products. — Kice  hulls  are  very  woody,  and  are  of 
very  little  use  for  any  animals,  but  are  especially  objectionable 
for  swine.  Rice  bran  and  rice  jjolish  have  considerable  f(^ed- 
ing  value,  but,  since  any  feed  made  up  from  rice  by-products 
is  apt  to  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  hull,  feeders  are 
inclined  to  look  upon  these  feeds  Avith  suspicion.  The  South 
Carolina  Experiment  Station  compared  rice  meal  and  skim- 
milk  with  com  meal  and  skim-milk  for  pigs,  and  obtained 
results  slightly  in  favor  of  rice  meal.  The  rice  meal  is  stated 
to  consist  largely  of  rice  flour,  rice  polish,  and  rice  bran.  At 
the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station,  rice  meal  and  milk 
proved  practically  equal  to  com  meal  and  milk  for  pigs. 


VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  181 

Bums,  Texas  Bulletin  131,  summarizes  results  of  feeding 
rice  bran  as  follows:  "  Kice  bran,  was  much  cheaper  than  corn 
and  yielded  a  larger  gain.  The  pork  produced  bj  it  was  of 
an  inferior  quality  to  that  produced  by  com.  The  shrinkage 
from  the  dressed  weight  hot  to  the  dressed  weight  chilled  was 
much  greater,  and  the  per  cent  of  dressed  cai*cass  much  less. 
Rice  bran  should  be  used  more  extensively  in  pork  production 
when  corn  is  so  much  higher  in  price,  and,  for  the  best  results, 
should  be  fed  in  connection  with  a  feed  rich  in  protein." 

Weed  Seeds. — Professor  Henry  conducted  two  trials  at  the 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  with  pigeon-grass  seed,  cooked 
and  uncooked,  for  swine.  The  results  are  reported  in  "  Feeds 
and  Feeding." 

Lot  1  was  fed  two-thirds  cooked  pigeon-grass  meal  and  one- 
third  com  meal  uncooked. 

Lot  2  was  fed  com  meal  only,  uncooked. 

Lot  3  was  fed  one-third  pigeon-grass  meal  and  two-thirds 
com  meal,  both  uncooked. 

Lot  1  made  the  largest  gains  and  required  the  least  feed 
for  100  pounds  of  gain,  and  lot  3  made  the  smallest  gains 
and  required  the  most  feed  for  100  pounds  of  gain. 

Professor  Henry  says :  "  It  is  evident  that  pigeon-grass 
seed  when  cooked  is  a  valuable  feed  for  sAnne.  ...  To  be 
satisfactory  for  pig  feeding  the  seed  of  this  grass  should  be 
ground  and  cooked." 

At  the  large  elevators,  weed  seeds  and  small  wheat  accumu- 
late in  large  quantities,  and  this  product  can  be  used  to  good 
advantage  in  feeding  swine  when  judiciously  mixed  with  other 
meal. 

"Stock  Feeds."— In  Bulletin  151  of  the  Wisconsin  Ex- 
periment Station,  Prof.  F.  W.  Woll  gives  a  review  of  the 
work  of  experiment  stations  with  so-called  "  stock  feeds,"  or 


182        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

"  condimental  stock  feeds."  In  suniiuing  up,  Professor  Well 
says,  in  part:  "  The  feeding  experinientvS  include  twenty-three 
different  trials,  conducted  at  more  than  a  dozen  different  ex- 
periment stations,  with  992  animals  in  all;  viz.,  with  78  steers, 
81  dairy  cows,  604  sheep,  112  pigs,  and  117  hens.  ...  In 
going  over  the  evidence  presented,  we  find  that  only  two  out  of 
the  twenty-three  different  trials  show^ed  tlie  stock  feed  to 
possess  any  merit;  the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  results  of 
the  twenty-one  trials  is  to  the  effect  that  nothing  was  gained 
by  including  these  feeds  in  the  ration  fed;  in  fact,  they  were 
shown  to  be  a  positive  detriment  in  so  far  that  they  rendered 
the  rations  more  expensive  and  increased  the  cost  of  the  product 
obtained,  whether  this  be  gain  in  live  weight,  milk,  butter 
fat,  wool,  or  eggs." 

Among  the  conclusions  drawn  from  investigation  %vork  ^vith 
"stock  feeds"  are  the  following: 

"  They  are  of  no  benefit  to  healthy  animals  when  fed  as 
directed,  either  as  to  increasing  the  digestibility  of  the  feed 
eaten  or  rendering  it  more  effective  for  the  production  of 
meat,  milk,  wool,  etc." 

"  They  are  of  no  benefit  as  a  cure-all  for  diseases  of  the 
various  classes  of  live  stock ;  neither  do  they  possess  any 
particular  merit  in  case  of  specific  diseases,  or  for  animals  out 
of  condition,  off  feed,  etc.,  since  only  a  small  proportion  of 
ingredients  having  medicinal  value  is  found  therein,  the  bulk 
of  the  feeds  consisting  of  a  filler  which  possesses  no  medicinal 
properties  whatever." 

"  Exorbitant  prices  are  charged  for  these  feeds," 

"  By  adopting  a  liberal  system  of  feeding  farm  animals 
and  furnishing  a  variety  of  feeds,  good  results  may  be  obtained 
without  resorting  to  stock  feeds  of  any  kind.  If  a  farmer 
believes  it  is  necessary  to  feed  stock  feeds  at  times,  he  can 


/ 


VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  183 

purchase  tJie  ingrodients  at  a  drug  store  aud  make  his  own 
stock  feeds  at  a  fraction  of  the  cost  charged  for  them  by  the 
manufacturers." 

The  following  formulas  for  stock  feeds,  suggested  bv  two 
American  experiment  stations,   are  given  in  the  bulletin: 

"1.  Ground  gentian,  1  pound;  ground  ginger,  14  pound; 
powdered  salpoter,  l^  pound;  powdered  iron  sulphate,  14 
pound.  Mix,  and  give  one  tablespoonful  in  feed  once  daily 
for  ten  days,  omit  for  three  days,  and  feed  as  above  for  ten 
days  more.  Estimated  cost,  20  cents  a  pound.  Estimated 
tonic  value,  about  four  times  that  of  most  condimental  feeds 
on  the  market" 

''  2.  Fenugreek,  8  pounds ;  ginger,  8  pounds ;  powdered 
gentian,  8  poimds;  powdered  sulphur,  8  pounds;  potassium 
nitrate,  8  ponnds;  resin,  8  pounds;  cayenne  pepper,  4  pounds; 
flax-seed  meal,  44  pounds;  powdered  charcoal,  20  pounds; 
common  salt,  20  pounds;  wheat  bran,  100  pounds." 

This  mixture  is  said  to  be  "  so  near  the  average  stock  feed 
that  neither  the  farmer  nor  his  stock  could  tell  the  difference." 
Estimated  cost,  less  than  $4.42  per  hundred  pounds. 

"  3.  Powdered  gentian,  1  pound ;  powdered  ginger,  1 
pound;  fenugreek,  5  pounds;  common  salt,  10  pounds;  bran, 
50  pounds;  oil  meal,  50  pounds.  Estimated  cost  $1.50  per 
hundred  pounds." 

Soft  Coal,  Charcoal,  and  Tonic  Mixture. — Bulletin  150  of 
the  ]Mar\-land  Experiment  Station  gives  results  of  a  single 
test  with  soft  cx^al,  charcoal,  and  tonic  mixture,  made  np  as 
follows :  Wood  charcoal,  1  poimd ;  sulphur,  1  pound ;  common 
salt,  2  pounds;  bread  soda,  2  pounds;  sodium  h\'posulphite, 
2  pounds ;  sodium  sulphate,  1  pound ;  black  antimony,  1  pound. 
The  ingredients  of  the  tonic  were  pulverized  and  thoroughly 
mixed.     The  cost  of  the  mixture  was  4  cents  per  pound. 


184         RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

Four  groups  of  pigs  eleven  weeks  old  were  uschI  iu  the 
test,  and  all  groups  were  fed  a  meal  mixture  composed  of  com 
meal,  wheat  middlings,  wheat  bran,  and  linseed  meal. 

Lots  1  and  2  were  given  free  access  to  soft  coal  and  charcoal, 
respectively,  lot  3  was  fed  one  ounce  of  the  tonic  to  every  10 
pounds  of  meal,  and  lot  4  w^as  fed  nothing  but  the  meal  ration. 

The  average  daily  gain  per  i)ig  in  the  four  lots  was  as 
follows:  Soft  coal,  .695  pound;  charcoal,  .738  pound;  tonic 
mixture,  .958  pound;  no  corrective,  .614  pound. 

The  cost  of  producing  100  pounds  gain  in  weiglit  was  as 
follows : 

Lot  1.  Lot  2.  Lot  3.  Lot  4. 

Soft  coal.        Charcoal.  Tonic.  Nothing. 

Meal     $5.93  $5.42  $4.74  $5.84 

Corrective 20  .14  .11  

Total    cost    $6.1.3  $5..56  $4.85  $5.84 

It  wdll  bo  noticed  that  the  lot  receiving  the  tonic  mixtuiv 
made  the  most  rapid  and  most  economical  gains,  the  lot  receiv- 
ing charcoal  coming  second.  The  hogs  which  were  allowed 
access  to  soft  coal  made  greater  gains  than  those  fed  meal 
alone,  but  the  gains  w^ere  more  expensive.  It  is  stated  that  the 
hogs  fed  correctives  had  a  decidedly  better  appetite  than  those 
which  received  none. 

The  experiment  indicates  tliat  correctives  or  tonics  may  l)e 
used  to  advantage  at  times,  but  that  it  is  easily  possible  to 
pay  too  much  for  them. 

REVIEW. 

1.  \Vliat  can  you  say  of  the  value  of  Canada  field  peas  for  swine? 
In  what  forms  are  they  fed? 

2.  In  what  ways  is  barley  better  than  corn  for  certain  lines  of  pig 
feeding? 

3.  Why  is  barley  not  used  more? 

4.  Discuss  the  value  of  wheat  for  swine. 

5.  May  frosted  wheat  be  used  with  good  results? 


/ 


VARIOUS  GRAINS,  MEALS,  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  185 

(i.  Wliiili  is  fomul  to  be  better,  frozen  wheat  or  barley? 

7.  Ihietly  mention  the  value  for  swine  feed — of  oats  and  of  rye. 

8.  In  what  sections  is  kafir  grown  with  profit  as  a  hog  feed? 

!>.  With   what  success  may   swine  feeders  use  buckwheat?     Emmer? 
Millet  seed? 

10.  Imler  wliat  circumstances   can   beans   be   profitably   fed   to  swine? 

11.  Discuss  tlie  special  advantages  of  wheat  middlings,  of  wheat  bran, 
of  low-grade  Hour. 

12.  What   are   the   advantages   and   the   disadvantages   of   hominy   feed 
for  hogs? 

13.  Is   corn-and-cob   meal   good   for   swine?      Should   the   feeder   use   it 
always?     Why? 

14.  In  wliat  ways  is  gluten  meal   proved  unfavorable? 

15.  Compare  linseed  meal  with  other  substitutes  for  skim-milk  for  pigs. 

16.  Give    the    cautions    regarding   tlie    use    of    cottonseed    meal.      How 
liberally  may  it  be  fed? 

17.  What  is  the  effect  on  hogs  following  cattle  that  are  fed  cottonseed 
meal? 

18.  Can    the    by-products    of    oatmeal    mills    be    used    successfully    for 
swine? 

10.  What   shall    the   feeder   decide   about   the   use   of   brewers'   grains? 
Distillers'  grains?     Sugar-beet  pulp?     Beet-sugar  molasses? 

20.  What  was  the  result  of  the  trial  with  black-strap  molasses? 

21.  How  does  sorghum  seed  compare  with  corn  for  feeding  bogs? 

22.  What  are  the  special  claims  for  Spanish  peanuts? 

23.  How  does  rough  red  rice  compare  with  corn? 

24.  Can  the  rice  by-products  be  used  with  profit? 

25.  How  should  the  feeder  use  weed  seeds? 

26.  \Aliat  is  the  advice  about  the  purchase  and  use  of  patent  "  stock 
feeds"?    What  do  they  contain? 

27.  Mention  several  good  forms  of  feeding  mineral  matter  to  swine. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
PASTURE  AND  SOILING  CROPS. 

Alfalfa. — Bulletin  155  of  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station 
gives  a  summary  of  results  from  feeding  alfalfa  to  hogs  at 
that  institution.  The  following  is  quoted  directly  from  tlie 
bulletin : 

"  At  this  station  some  years  ago,  a  gain  of  800  pounds  of 
pork  was  made  from  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay,  and  a  little  less  than 
that  amount  of  gain  was  made  from  an  acre  of  alfalfa  pasture. 
In  another  test  here,  an  acre  of  alfalfa  produced  $20.20  worth 
of  pork,  while  an  acre  of  rape  fed  to  a  similar  lot  of  hogs 
returned  $10.05  worth  of  pork. 

"In  a  later  experiment  we  found  that  100  pounds  of 
alfalfa  hay  saved  96  pounds  of  corn.  Figuring  on  the  basis 
of  5  pounds  of  com  producing  one  pound  of  pork,  the  96 
pounds  of  alfalfa  would  produce  19  pounds  of  pork.  Estimat- 
ing the  average  yield  of  alfalfa  to  be  four  tons  per  acre,  on  this 
basis  it  would  mean  a  production  of  1600  pounds  of  pork  per 
acre  with  alfalfa  fed  in  the  fonn  of  hay  in  connection  with 
com.  This  experiment  was  conducted  during  the  winter 
season. 

"  In  an  experiment  during  the  summer,  we  found  that 
170  pounds  of  green  alfalfa,  cut  and  fed  to  hogs  fresh  in  a 
dry  yard,  was  equal  to  100  pounds  of  com,  and  in  this  experi- 
ment it  took  6  pounds  of  com  to  produce  a  pound  of  pork. 
Therefore,  assuming  170  poimds  of  green  alfalfa  would 
produce  16%  pounds  of  pork,  a  fraction  over  10  pounds  of 
green  alfalfa  would  prmluoo  one  ]>ouiid  of  pork.  Estimating 
that  an  acre  of  alfalfa  will  yield  during  the  season   20,000 

(186) 


PASTURE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  187 

pounds  of  greeu  haj,  this  experiment  would  show  that,  such  an 
acre  of  alfalfa,  cut  greon  aaid  fed  fresh,  would  produce  some- 
thing like  2000  pounds  of  pork.  Of  course,  this  is  fed  in 
connection  \\'ith  corn,  and  a  statement  that  an  acre  of  green 
alfalfa  would  produce  2000  pounds  of  pork  would  be  verv'  mis- 
leading. Figuring  on  the  basis  of  these  two  experiments, 
alfalfa  hay,  yielding  four  tons  per  acre  (8000  pounds),  would 
produce  1600  pounds  of  pork,  and  its  value  at  4  cents  per 
pound  would  be  something  like  $64.00  per  acre ;  and  green 
alfalfa  producing  ten  tons  per  acre   (20,000  pounds)   would 


Fig.  44. — Alfalfa  is  good  both  for  soiling  and  for  hay  for  swine. 

produce  2000  pounds  of  pork,  which,   at  4  cents  per  pound, 
would  be  worth  $80.00  per  acre." 

Kansas  and  Wyoming  Trials. — The  Kansas  results  from 
feeding  alfalfa  are  about  the  most  favorable  of  which  the 
writer  is  aware.  Very  fair  results  were  obtained  at  the 
Wyoming  Experiment  Station,  where  alfalfa  hay  and  wheat 
were  fed  against  wheat  alone.  In  this  experiment  it  required 
449  pounds  of  wheat  for  100  pounds  of  gain  where  wheat  was 
fed  alone;  and  319.3  pounds  of  wheat  and  291.3  pounds  of 
alfalfa  for  100  pounds  of  gain  where  wheat  and  alfalfa  hay 
were  fed.      On   this  basis,   a   ton   of  alfalfa   hay  would  give 


188        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

scMivclv  I'OO  jxMiiiils  (if  jiork,  wliicli  is  only  <iiu'-(iu<irl('r  as 
iimcli  pork  as  was  nWlaincd  at  Kansas  from  a  ton  (»f  alfalfa 
hay.  It  is  well  to  rcnK'nibcr,  however,  that  alfalfa  hay  varies 
very  much  in  (|uality.  Well-cured,  fine-stemmed,  leafy  hay 
Would  he  In-st  for  hog  feeding,  and  coarse-stemmed  hay  that 
had  been  damaged  more  or  less  hy  the  Aveather  might  have 
yory  little  value  for  this  puiix>se.  Such  a  discrepancy  as  that 
noted  betw<'en  the  Kansas  and  Wyoming  results  might  easily 
Ix'  ac(v»unt('d  for  on  the  basis  of  dirt'crcnt  (lualities  of  liny,  anil 
in  the  meantime  we  may  regard  the  Kansas  results  as  repre- 
senting the  maximum  returns  from  alfalfa.  It  is  also  worthy 
of  note  that  in  one  Kansas  experiment  the  amount  of  ])ork 
jiroduccd  l)y  a  t^iu  of  alfalfa  hay  was  oidy  2''].")  pounds,  an 
amount  oidy  slightly  greater  than  that  obtained  at  Wyoming, 
so  that  it  would  be  safer  to  regard  the  SOO  ])ounds  of  pork  from 
a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  as  a  possibility,  rather  than  as  something 
which  can  be  generally  depended  upon. 

The  Wyoming  Station  also  tried  feeding  young  pigs, 
weighing  from  (M)  to  70  ])ounds,  a  ration  of  1/}  corn  meal  or 
wheat  meal,  and  ^-^  alfalfa  hay,  but  the  })igs  lost  weight,  and 
one  died.  On  the  other  hand,  mature  sows  were  successfully 
maintaineil  on  a  i-ation  of  alfalfa  hay  and  nirni|is  without 
<ither  feed,  iiulicating  that  alfalfa  hay  is  best  suited  to  pigs 
that  are  fairly  well  grown. 

Rape. —  Rape  is  a  croj*  which  is  highly  recommended 
wherever  it  can  be  grown  successfully.  For  hog  ])asture  it  is 
best  sown  in  drills  alxnit  2S  inches  apart  at  the  rate  of  three 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  It  may  also  be  so\\m  broadcast.  In 
most  localities,  it  is  safer  not  to  sow  until  after  the  first  of 
June.  If  there  is  enough  moisture  in  the  soil  to  germinate 
the  s(hm1.  it  is  generally  ready  for  pasture  in  alx)ut  six  weeks. 

Rape   Compared   with   Alfalfa. — The   Kansas  Experiment 


PASTURE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  189 

Statiim  c'oniparcMl  nijx'  with  alfalfa  for  pigs  averaging  52 
poiiuds  at  the  coinmeiiceiiient  of  the  experiment.  Ten  pigs 
were  used  in  each  lot.  Following  are  daily  gains  per  head 
and  pounds  of  grain  consumed  jjer  100  pounds  of  gain: 

Daily  Grain  consumed  per 

gain.  100  pounds  gain. 

Lot  I.     No   pasture    1.04  pounds  371  pounds 

Lot  2.     Kapo   pasturt' 1.00  pounds  301  pounds 

Lot  3.     Alfalfa   pasture    1.10  pounds  200  pounds 

An  acre  of  rape  was  required  for  ten  pigs,  but  half  an 
acre  of  alfalfa  was  sufficient  for  the  same  number. 

An  acre  of  rape  pasture  produced  202  pounds  of  pork,  and 
an  acre  of  alfalfa  pasture  produced  408  pomids  of  pork. 

"•  This  experiment  emphasizes  the  superior  value  of  alfalfa, 
and  likewise  emphasizes  the  value  of  dwarf  Essex  rape,  which 
can  be  seeded  in  the  feed-lots  that  w^ould  otherwise  go  to 
waste  or  grow  up  to  weeds,  and  be  made  to  pay  a  handsome 
profit  on  the  investment." 

Rape  for  Pasture. — At  tlie  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station, 
Craig  conducted  two  experiments  with  hogs  on  rape.  In  the 
first  experiment,  10  hogs,  about  eight  months  old,  w^ere  pastured 
on  one-third  of  an  acre  of  rape  for  76  days,  and  fed  com  and 
shorts  in  addition.  Another  lot  was  fed  in  a  pen  on  corn  and 
shorts  only.  In  the  second  experiment,  19  hogs  were  pastured 
seven  weeks  on  six-tenths  of  an  acre  of  rape,  as  compare<l 
with  a  similar  lot  in  pens  on  grain  only. 

In  the  first  trial  one-third  of  an  acre  of  rape  was  equivalent 
to  1062  pounds  of  grain,  and  in  the  second  trial  six-tenths  of 
an  acre  of  rape  was  equivalent  to  1330.2  pounds  of  grain. 
Therefore,  in  one  case  an  acre  of  rape  w^as  equivalent  to  "186 
pounds  of  grain,  and  in  the  other  to  2217  jxmnds  of  grain. 

Later,  Carlyle,  of  the  same  institution,  repeated  the  work, 


190        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 


and  states:  "  ^Yitll  pigs  from  four  to  ton  months  old,  repre- 
senting the  various  breeds  of  swine,  an  acre  of  rape,  when 
properly  grown,  has  a  feeding  value  when  combined  with  a 
ration  of  com  and  shorts  equivalent  to  2346  pounds  of  a 
mixture  of  these  grain  feeds." 

The  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Canada,  reports  feeding 
six  pigs  on  three-sixteenths  of  an  acre  of  rape  pasture  from 
August  14th  until  'snow  covered  the  ground.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  rape  saved  156  pounds  of  meal,  or  an  acre  of  rape 
would  save  882  pounds  of  moal.  This  is  far  short  of  tlie 
\Yisconsin  returns,  but  the  pigs  were  voung  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  trial,  and  it  is  the  A\Titer''s  experience  that  young 
pigs  do  not  make  as  good  use  of  pasture  as  older  ones. 

Rape  vs.  Clover. — The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  re- 
ports two  trials  with  pigs  on  rape  and  clover.  In  tlie  first 
trial  there  were  twenty  pigs  in  each  group,  and  in  the  second 
trial  twenty-one  in  each  group.  The  pigs  were  from  five  to  six 
months  old  at  the  commencement.  The  following  table  shows 
gains  and  feed  consumed : 


First    trial. 

Second  trial. 

Rape. 

Clover. 

Rape. 

Clover. 

lbs. 

.87 
391 

lbs. 
.78 
439 

lbs. 
1.27 
332 

lbs. 

1.22 

Amount  of  grain  lor  100  lbs.  gain. . 

340 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  rajie  gave  somewhat  better  gains 
with  a  smaller  meal  requirement  per  100  pounds  gain  than 
the  clover,  though  the  difference  was  not  great  in  the  second 
trial. 

Rape  vs.  Soy  Beans. — The  Ontario  Agricidtural  College 
fed  'soy  beans  and  rape  to  pigs  in  pens,  the  green  fodder  being 


PASTURE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  191 

cut  and  carried  tx3  the  pigs.  The  pigs  were  fed  meal  and 
skim-iiiilk  in  addition. 

An  acre  of  rape  furnished  22  tons  of  green  fodder,  and  an 
acre  of  soy  beans  15  tons  of  green  fodder. 

Soy  beans  had  a  higher  feeding  value  per  ton  than  rape,  but 
when  the  difference  in  yield  was  taken  into  consideration,  the  two 
crops  proved  about  equal  in  amount  of  pork  proiluced  per  acre. 

Rape  has  an  advantage  over  soy  beans  in  tliat  it  may  be 
so\\Ti  on  a  wider  range  of  dates,  and  retains  its  green  condition 
for  a  longer  period. 

Rape  also  suffers  less  from  trampling  than  soy  beans. 

Soy  Beans. — The  test  with  soy  beans  and  rape  referred  to 
above  was  conducted  in  a  northern  latitude  where  rape  grows 
to  perfection  and  soy  beans  do  not.  In  the  South,  it  is  quite  a 
different  question,  and  the  soy  bean  becomes  a  most  valuable 
pasture  crop.  Bulletin  154  of  the  Alabama  Station  recom- 
mends soy  bean  pasture  very  highly,  ^^^len  corn  is  valued 
at  70  cents  per  bushel,  and  soy  bean  pasture  at  $8.00  per  acre, 
it  costs  $7.61  to  produce  100  pounds  of  pork  on  corn  alone, 
but  when  hogs  were  fed  corn  on  a  soy  bean  pasture,  the  cost  of 
100  pounds  of  pork  varied  from  $2.59  to  $3.17. 

One  acre  of  soy  bean  pasture  afforded  grazing  for  10  hogs, 
of  an  average  weight  of  45  pounds  at  the  beginning  of  the  test, 
for  the  following  number  of  days : 

When  one-fourtli  of  a  full  corn  ration  was  fed 43  days. 

When  one-lialf  of  a  full  corn   ration   was  fed 4S  days. 

When  three-fourths  of  a  full  corn  ration  was  fed 62  days. 

The  total  value  of  pork  made  on  each  acre  of  soy  bean  pasture 
varied  from  $25.84  to  $39.13,  valuing  pork  at  7  cents  per  pound, 
and  deducting  value  of  corn  consumed  at  70  cents  per  bushel. 

These  results  show  the  possibilities  of  soy  bean  pasture  as  a 
means  of  reducing  cost  of  pork  production  in  the  South. 

Clover   and   Timothy. — Tn   the  experiments   at  the   Iowa 


192        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

Experiment  Station  with  supplementary  feeds  with  corn,  hogs 
were  pastured  upon  both  clover  and  timothy.  Without  going 
into  details,  it  may  be  said  that  the  experiments  indicate  that 
clover  produced  pork  at  the  rate  of  400  pounds  per  acre,  and 
timothy  at  the  rate  of  278  pounds  per  acre.  This  is  probably 
more  than  can  be  expected  from  these  crops  as  a  general  rule. 

Hairy  Vetch  or  Sand  Vetch. — This  crop  is  very  much 
relished  by  hogs,  and  if  sown  in  the  fall  gives  an  early  pasture 
of  high  nutritive  value.  Smooth  vetch  is  sown  in  the  spring, 
but  it  is  rather  late  in  the  season  before  it  is  ready  for  pasture, 
and  it  does  not  give  the  amount  of  pasture  which  is  desirable. 
The  liability  of  hairy  vetch  to  winter-kill  in  some  districts  when 
sown  in  the  fall,  and  the  high  price  of  the  seed,  prevent  the  crop 
from  becoming  widely  popular. 

Velvet  Bean. — This  plant  flourishes  in  certain  parts  of  the 
South  near  the  Gulf  coast.  The  Florida  Station  (Bulletin  118) 
gives  a  rather  adverse  report  on  velvet  beans  for  swine.*  Cull 
velvet  beans  and  velvet  beans  in  the  pod  were  fed  separately  and 
in  combination  with  corn  and  other  feeds,  but  in  no  case  could 
the  results  be  called  satisfactory.  They  also  produced  a  poor 
(|uality  of  pork  when  fed  in  any  considerable  quantity.  The 
velv^et  bean  is  a  valuable  cover  crop  and  soil  improver  where  it 
can  be  grown,  and,  incidentally,  can  be  made  to  furnish  pasture 
for  hogs,  especially  when  grown  with  field  corn. 

Various  Forage  Crops. — Bulletin  95  of  the  Missouri  Ex- 
periment Station  reports  three  years'  work  with  several  forage 
crops. 

Shelled  corn  and  corn  meal  were  used  to  supplement  the 
rape  and  the  leguminous  forage ;  and  a  ration  of  corn  meal 
6  parts  and  oil  meal  1  part  was  used  to  supplement  the  sorghum, 
blue  grass,  and  rye  grain  forages. 

Blue  Grass. — "An  average  of  12.0  head  of  hogs  was 
pastured  for  an  average  of  155.3  days  for  the  seasons  of  1008- 
09-10,   and  produced  on  the  average  285.2  pounds  of  pork 


P.\STURE  .\ND  SOILING  CROPS  193 

which  c*(t\il(l  1h'  uecrcditcd  to  each  ncrc  of  t"<trairc  catni.  With 
pork  at  (»  cents  per  jtound  then'  was  rctnriUMl  jxt  acre  of  Mui' 
grass  forage  an  average  of  $17.12.  The  average  anioiint  of 
grain  per  pound  gain  was  4.49  pounds.  Profits  from  hogs  on 
blue  grass  forage  must  be  secured  early  in  the  season.  The 
blue  grass  forage  became  drv  and  unfit  for  swine  grazing 
purposes  in  August." 

Alfalfa. — ''  Under  ordinary  conditions  alfalfa  will  forage 
from  10  to  20  shoats  per  acre.  A  new  seeding  should  be 
pastured  very  lightly  the  first  season.  !N^o  larger  number  than 
ten  shoats  ]ier  acre  or  one  sow  and  her  litter  should  be  used. 
After  the  first  season  as  high  as  20  head  i)er  acre  or  two  sows 
and  their  litters  may  be  pastured  on  it  throughout  the  season.'' 
Only  one  test  was  conducted  with  alfalfa,  and  this  on  newly 
seeded  ground.  The  test  was  started  with  12  hogs  per  acre, 
which  number  was  reduced  to  J.0  at  the  end.  of  eight  weeks. 
The  hogs  averaged  58.5  pounds  at  the  commencement  of  the 
test,  and  were  turned  on  the  alfalfa  when  it  was  six  inches 
high.  "  The  average  amount  of  grain  required  to  produce  a 
pound  gain  was  3.07  pounds.  The  amount  of  pork  which 
could  be  accredited  to  the  alfalfa  forage  was  596.8  pounds 
per  acre.   With  pork  at  6  cents  the  return  per  acre  was  $35.71." 

Bed  Clover. — Two  tests  were  conducted  with  red  clover,  and 
it  is  stated  that  clover  will  pasture  from  8  to  12  shoats  per 
acre.  Tt  is  recommended  not  to  pasture  clover  until  it  is  10 
inches  high.  The  bulletin  recommends  feeding  slioats  about  a 
pound  of  com  per  head  per  day. 

*■  A  herd  averaging  11  hogs  was  pastured  for  an  average  of 
130  days  for  the  seasons  of  1908  and  1910,  and  proiluced  an 
average  of  572.2  j)ounds  of  pork  that  could  be  accredited  to 
each  acre  of  forage  eaten.  These  experiments  indicate  that  a 
value  of  98  cents  may  be  obtained  for  each  bushel  of  corn  fed  to 
13 


194         RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

hogs  pasturing  on  clover,  when  pork  is  worth  6  cents,  and 
when  rent  of  land,  taxes,  labor,  etc.,  are  valued  at  $10.00  per 
acre." 

Rape,  Oats,  and  Clover. — This  mixture  was  so^vn  at  the 
rate  of  5  to  7  pounds  of  rape,  i/o  bushel  of  oats,  and  6  to  10 
pounds  of  clover  per  acre.  The  results  are  summarized  as 
follows:  "A  herd  averaging  10  hogs  per  acre  was  pastured 
on  rape,  oats,  and  clover  forage  for  an  average  of  06  days 
for  the  seasons  1909  and  1910,  and  produced  an  average  of 
394  pounds  of  pork  that  could  be  accredited  to  each  acre  of 
forage  eaten.  A  value  of  89  cents  may  be  obtained  for  every 
bushel  of  com  fed  to  hogs  on  rape,  oats,  and  clover  forage  when 
pork  is  worth  6  cents  per  pound,  and  when  rent,  labor,  taxes, 
etc.,  are  valued  at  $10.00  per  acre." 

Sorghum. — One  test  was  conducted  with  sorghum  forage. 
The  sorghum  was  sown  wath  the  gi-ain-drill  at  the  rate  of  one 
bushel  per  acre.  It  is  recommended  to  turn  in  the  hogs  when 
the  sorghum  is  1^4  to  2  feet  high,  and  to  pasture  about  12 
hogs  per  acre.  From  July  6th,  when  die  hogs  were  first 
turned  on  the  pasture,  imtil  September  21st,  the  hogs  made 
good  gains,  "sliowing  a  profit  of  from  $4.85  to  $10.00  per  acre, 
and  using  from  2.73  to  4.24  pounds  of  grain  per  pound  of 
gain.  About  the  middle  of  September  a  second  growth  started, 
after  which  the  hogs  did  not  make  profitable  gains.  Tlie  second 
growth  is  believed  to  have  a  poisonous  effect  upon  hogs. 

Coir-peas  (Fi^.  45)  were  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  ly^ 
bushels  per  acre,  and  the  hogs  were  turned  in  when  the  berries 
were  just  out  of  the  dough  stage.  ''  A  herd  averaging  12 
hogs  per  acre  was  pastured  on  cow-pea  forage  for  an  average 
of  35.7  days  during  the  seasons  of  1908,  1909,  and  1910. 
There  were  produced  on  the  average  224.9  pounds  of  pork  that 


PASTURE  AND  SOILING  CROPS 


195 


could  be  accredited  to  each  acre  of  cow-pea  forage."  The  cow- 
pea  foraij;e  was  supplemented  with  corn  meal  to  the  extent  of 
V2  to  %  of  a  full  ration. 

Sojj   Beav^-i. — Two    tests    were    conducted    with    soy-bean 
forage.     The  first  test,  in  1909,  was  unsatisfactory,  owing  to 


f  IG.  45. — Cow   ; 


ir  ;f  n  works.     Cii.od  ior  hog  pasture. 


a  poor  stand  of  soy  beans.  In  1910  the  results  were  satis- 
factory. Medium  early  yellow  soy  beans  were  sown  June  1  r)th 
at  the  rate  of  1^^  bushels  per  acre.  The  hogs  were  turned 
into  the  crop  when  the  pods  were  well  formed.  The  crop  was 
pastured  at  the  rate  of  12  hogs  per  acre,  and  corn  meal  to 
the  extent  of  three-fourths  of  a  full  ration  was  fed  as  a  sup- 


196        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

plement*  The  pasture  lasted  from  September  13th  to  October 
25th,  and  the  amount  of  pork  per  acre  accredited  to  the  forage 
was  183.1  pounds. 

Hogging  Off  Rye. — The  authors  state  that  when  rye  is  in- 
tended for  ''  hogging  off  "  purposes,  it  should  be  allowed  to 
become  thoroughly  ripe,  so  that  the  heads  crinkle  down  and 
droop  near  the  ground.  In  three  tests  a  supplementars'  ration 
of  corn  meal  6  parts  and  oil  meal  1  part  was  fed  at  the  rate 
of  1  pound  per  head  per  day.  In  two  tests  16  hogs  were 
pastured  per  acre,  and  in  one  test  8  hogs  per  acre.  The  amount 
of  pork  accredited  to  an  acre  of  rye  in  the  three  tests  was 
215  i)Ounds,  257  pounds,  and  200  pounds  respectively.  With 
])ork  at  6  cents  per  pound,  the  returns  are  accounted  about 
CK\\\n\  to  the  returns  when  the  crop  is  sold  as  graiu,  InU  the 
fertility  is  retained  under  the  pasturing  system. 

General  Conclusions. — Of  the  general  conclusions  given  in 
the  bulletin,  the  following  are  of  special  importance : 

1.  "  The  number  of  hogs  which  may  be  kept  on  eacli  acre 
of  forage  will  depend  upon  the  abundance  of  forage,  but  in 
general  not  more  than  10  to  12  head  should  be  used." 

2.  "  The  greatest  returns  have  been  obtained  when  grain 
was  fed  in  addition  to  the  forage  at  the  rate  of  2  to  3  per  cent 
of  the  weight  of  the  hogs  per  day.  The  amount  fed  per  head 
per  day  should  Ix?  increased  as  the  hog  increases  in  size." 

3.  ''  A  verv  good  plan  in  feeding  80  to  100  pound  hogs  on 
forage  would  be  to  feed,  per  head  per  day  during  May,  1.75 
pounds  of  grain ;  during  June,  2  pounds  grain ;  during  July, 
3  pounds  grain,  and  during  August,  4  to  5  pounds  grain." 

■1.  "  Gains  made  on  forage  are  made  at  20  to  30  per  cent 
less  cost  than  gains  produced  with  grain  and  dry  lot  feeding. 
With  pork  at  0  cents,  the  average  value  of  a  bushel  of  corn 
fed  to  hogs  in  dry  lot  was  66  cents;  and  the  average  value  of 


PASTURE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  197 

11  bushel  of  corn  fi'd  to  hogs  on  forage  was  SO  cents,  after  a 
$10.00  charge  (per  acre)  had  been  paid  for  rent,  taxes,  etc." 

Fall  Rye. — Kyc  does  not  make  so  valuable  a  pasture  as 
nuinv  other  crops,  and  its  main  feature  is  its  early  growth. 
For  supplying  pasture  very  early  in  the  spring,  a  small  plot  of 
rye  can  often  be  used  to  good  advantage.  (Also  see  under  "  Pork 
Production  in  the  South,"  Chapter  XXVI I.) 

Sorghum. — Owing  to  its  large  yield  and  sureness  of  crop, 
sorghum  is  quite  popular  in  the  South  as  a  feed  for  swine.  At 
the  Alabama  Station  (Bulletin  143),  sorghum  was  used  as  a  past- 
ure and  soiling  crop  for  hogs  weighing  73  pounds  each  at  the 
commencement  of  the  test.  The  following  statements  are  quoted 
from  the  bulletin : 

A  ration  of  corn  and  sorfjlnim  alone  is  a  very  poor  feed  for  either 
fattening  hogs  or  for  producing  growth,  neither  feed  furnishing  enough 
protein  or  ash  for  hogs  which  are  not  completely  matured.  The  sorghum 
might  have  made  a  better  showing  if  the  pigs  used  had  been  matured 
animals  Ijefore  the  fattening  period  began. 

Under  the  conditions  in  which  sorghum  was  fed  in  these  experiments, 
it  was  found  to  be  almost  worthless  as  a  supplement  to  either  corn,  or  to 
a  mixed  ration  of  corn  and  cottonseed  meal. 

Sorghum  has  probably  one  valuable  place  as  a  hog  feed — to  help  carry 
the  brood  sows  through  the  summer  months  economically  when  the  pastures 
become  short. 

The  sorghum  was  not  fed  until  the  juice  began  to  sweeten; 
or  until  some  of  the  heads  began  to  turn  black.  The  bulletin 
states  that  some  farmers  report  success  in  pasturing  hogs  on 
sorghum  when  the  plants  are  about  one  foot  in  height. 

The  Arkansas  Station  reports  favorably  upon  the  use  of  sor- 
ghum for  ])igs,  and  rocoinmcnds  red  clover  or  alfalfa  for  early 
pasture,  followed  by  sorghum  fed  to  pigs  in  pens,  and  the  sor- 
ghum followed  by  peanut  pasture.  The  pigs  should  be  finished 
for  market  on  a  grain  ration. 

Cow-peas. — The  cow-pea  flourishes  in  the  South,  where  it 
gives  exceptionally  good  results  as  a  hog  pasture.  (Fig.  45.) 
It  is  frequently  sown  among  corn  with  the  last  cultivation,  and 


198         RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

pastured  after  the  corn  is  harvested.  The  Mississippi  Ex- 
periment Station  (Bulletin  100)  reports  producing  from  350 
to  483  pounds  of  pork  from  an  acre  of  cow-peas.  The  peas 
were  allowed  to  become  nearly  ripe  before  the  hogs  were  turned 
in.     (Also  see  Missouri  results  reported  in  this  chapter. ) 

Soy  Beans  vs.  Cow-peas. — Bulletin  82  of  the  Tennessee  Sta- 
tion makes  the  following  comparisons : 

The  soy  bean  may  fail  to  come  through  a  crust  which  would 
offer  but  little  resistance  to  cow-peas. 

The  germination  of  the  cow-pea  seed  is  surer  than  that  of  the 
soy  bean  seed.  The  cow-pea  is,  therefore,  better  than  the  soy 
bean  for  broadcasting,  especially  on  land  that  is  heavy  and 
liable  to  bake. 

The  cow-pea  is  much  better  suited  than  the  soy  beau  for 
planting  with  either  corn  or  sorghum. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  soy  bean  is  more  valuable  than  the 
cow-pea  as  an  early  grazing  crop,  and  the  seeds  decay  more 
slowly  than  those  of  the  cow-pea  when  left  on  the  ground,  which 
is  an  advantage  when  the  crop  is  to  be  pastured  off  by  hogs. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  much  depends  upon  the  condi- 
tions under  which  the  crop  is  grown. 

Mixtures. — Various  mixtures  have  been  used  as  pasture 
crops  for  swine.  The  writer  has  used  oats  and  peas,  also  a 
mixture  of  oats,  peas,  and  vetches.  These  crops  do  not  stand 
pasturing  well,  and  are  better  suited  for  soiling  purposes. 

The  ^lichigan  Experiment  Station  speaks  well  of  a  mixture 
of  corn,  peas,  oats,  rape,  and  red  clover.  There  is  a  good  deal 
of  waste  in  pasturing  this  crop.  If,  however,  the  first  crop 
could  be  cut  for  soiling  purposes,  the  second  gro\\i;li  would 
furnish  a  good  deal  of  pasture.  (See  also  Missouri  tests  re- 
ported in  this  chapter.) 

Jerusalem  Artichokes. — The  Central  Experimental  Farm, 
Canada,  reports  good  results  from  this  crop.     One-sixteenth  of 


PASTURE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  199 

an  acre  was  planted  on  May  19th  with  70  pounds  of  tubers. 
The  tubers  were  planted  about  four  inches  deep,  in  rows  24 
inches  apart,  and  in  hills  about  20  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Six 
pigs,  averaging  a  little  over  100  pounds  each,  were  turned  into 
the  plot  on  October  3  and  allowed  to  harvest  the  crop,  which 
lasted  them  three  weeks.  They  were  fed  a  light  meal  ration 
while  eating  the  tubers.  The  six  pigs  gained  197  pounds 
in  three  weeks,  and  consumed  only  189  pounds  of  meal.  This 
is  a  most  extraordinary  result,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  experiment  lasted  a  very  short  time.  The  experiment  in- 
dicates possibilities  for  this  crop.     Pigs  eat  artichokes  greedily. 

Peanuts  (Pasture). — Bulletin  143  of  the  Alabama  Station 
gives  results  of  three  years'  work  with  peanuts  as  a  pasture  crop. 
Unfortunately,  the  peanuts  produced  a  normal  crop  only  one 
year  out  of  the  three,  due  to  the  fact  that  labor  could  not  be 
procured  to  work  the  crops  after  they  werfe  put  in. 

In  the  test  with  a  normal  crop  of  peanuts,  it  required  560 
pounds  of  corn  fed  alone  to  produce  100  pounds  of  pork,  but 
with  hogs  fed  corn  on  peanut  pasture,  it  required  177  pounds 
corn  and  0.12  acre  peanuts  to  produce  100  pounds  of  pork. 

The  average  of  three  years  shows  the  amount  of  feed  for 

100  pounds  gain  in  weight  to  be  as  follows : 

Corn  alone    611  lbs.  corn. 

Corn  and  peanut  pasture    148  lbs.  corn,  0.45  acre  peanuts. 

The  writers  of  the  bulletin  state:  "  As  a  whole,  peanut  past- 
ure was  found  to  be  more  useful  than  any  other  pasture  tried. 
Pork  was  made  at  a  good  profit  when  peanut  pasture  was  used 
in  conjunction  with  corn." 

Of  course  this  does  not  mean  that  other  pasture  crops  do 
not  occupy  an  important  place  because  peanuts  are  available 
for  only  a  limited  time. 

Attention  is  called  again  to  the  injurious  influence  of  peanuts 
upon  the  quality  of  pork,  and  the  fact  that  the  hogs  should  have, 
9,t  leastj  several  weeks  of  grain  feeding  before  going  to  market. 


200        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

The  chufa  is  more  or  less  a  weed  in  the  South,  but  it  produces 
small  tubers  which  hogs  eat  readily.  The  Alabama  Station 
(Bulletin  122)  fed  hogs  corn  and  cow-pea  meal  on  a  chufa 
pasture.  The  average  of  two  tests  shows  307  pounds  of  pork 
which  can  be  credited  to  each  acre  of  chufas  after  making  allow- 
ance for  the  meal  fed.  Chufas  did  not  prove  as  satisfactory  as 
peanuts  and  soy  beans  for  hog  pasture  (Ala.  Bui.  143).  Like 
other  succulent  feeds,  tlie  chufa  is  not  a  substitute  for  grain, 
but  may  often  be  used  to  advantage  to  supplement  a  grain  ration. 

Acorns. — In  parts  of  the  South,  acorns  assume  considerable 
importance  in  feeding  hogs.  Hogs  usually  are  allowed  to  run 
in  the  woods  and  gather  the  fallen  nuts,  which,  being  a  waste 
product,  help  to  cheapen  production.  The  Tuskegee  Station 
in  Alabama  reports  feeding  400  pigs  successfully  on  acorns  and 
kitchen  slop.  The  pigs  were  fed  about  five  pounds  of  acorns 
each,  per  day.  Acorns  make  a  very  poor  quality  of  pork  and  pigs 
should  be  given  several  weeks  of  grain  feeding  before  they  are 
slaughtered,  to  overcome  the  bad  effect  of  the  acorns. 

Pasture  vs.  Soiling. — Some  cxix'rinicnts  at  the  Ontario 
Agi-icultural  College  indicate  that  more  rapid  gains  with  a 
smaller  consumption  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain  can  be  secured 
by  soiling  pigs  than  by  pasturing.  This  is  esjx^cially  true  of 
young  pigs,  and  the  writer's  experience  leads  liiui  to  believe 
that  pigs  should  weigh  at  least  100  pounds  before  being  turned 
on  pasture,  to  get  best  results.  There  is  considerable  extra 
labor  in  cutting  green  crops  and  carrying  them  to  the  pigs  under 
the  soiling  system,  which  brings  the  two  systems  fairly  close 
together  from  the  stan(l-]ioint  of  economy. 

Amount  of  Grain  on  Pasture. — Growing  or  fattening  pigs 
cannot  bo  produced  satisfactorily  on  pasture  alone,  but  a  grain 
i-atioii  is  necessarv.  The  ^lontana  Experiment  Station  found 
that  hogs  fed  a  full  grain  ration  on  pasture  gained,  on  an 
average,    1.39    poun<ls    jior    hog    p<^r    day,    and    requinMl    412 


PASTURE  AND  SOIUNG  CROPS  201 

pounds  of  p-ain  for  100  pounds  of  gain.  Hogs  fed  a  half 
ration  of  grain,  gained  .98  pound  per  hog  per  day,  and  re- 
quired 291  pounds  of  grain  for  100  pounds  of  gain.  Thus, 
it  will  lx»  seen  that  the  hogs  fed  a  full  ration  on  pasture  made 
more  rapid  gains,  hut  consumed  much  more  grain  for  every 
100  pounds  of  gain. 

The  Ontario  Agricultural  College  fed  two  lots  of  pigs  five 
weeks  on  clover  and  ton  weeks  on  rape.  One  lot  received  a 
full  meal  ration  and  the  other  a  tw^o-thirds  meal  ration.  As 
in  the  Montana  experiment*,  the  hogs  fed  a  full  meal  ration 
made  more  rapid  gains  than  the  others,  but  they  consumed 
421  pounds  of  meal  for  100  pounds  of  gain,  as  compared  with 
353  pounds  meal  for  100  pomids  gain  in  the  lot  fed  the  two- 
thirds  ration. 

It  seems  to  be  clearly  demonstrated  that  it  is  a  mistake  to 
feed  hogs  all  the  meal  tliey  will  eat  when  upon  pasture,  unless 
it  becomes  necessary  to  do  so  near  the  end  of  the  feeding  period 
in  order  to  fit  them  for  market.  (See  also  Missouri  recom- 
mendations quoted  in  this  chapter.) 

Methods  of  Feeding  Alfalfa. — Bulletin  123  of  the 
!N^ebraska  Experiment  Station  reports  a  series  of  winter  tests 
■with  varying  proportions  of  corn  and  alfalfa.  The  tests  covered 
three  years,  and  they  appear  to  have  been  carefully  conducted. 
The  rations  tested  were  as  follows : 

Corn  alone. 

Corn  and  alfalfa  hay   in   a   rack. 

n  parts  corn  and   1   part  chopped  alfalfa. 

0  parts  corn  and   1  part  alfalfa  meal. 

3  parts  corn  and   1   part  chopped   alfalfa. 

3  parts  corn  and   1   part  alfalfa  meal. 

1  part  corn  and  1   part  chopped  alfalfa. 
1  part  corn  and  1  part  alfalfa  meal. 

Summary  of  Results. — (1)  The  gains  made  by  tlio  rations 
containing  one-half  alfalfa  were  much   slower  and   niore  ex- 


202        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

pensive  than  those  obtained  from  any  of  the  other  rations. 
The  tests  during  two  winters  showed  that  a  fattening  ration 
shonld  contain  less  than  half  alfalfa,  but  a  ration  of  half 
alfalfa  and  half  corn  was  found  ([nito  satisfactory  for  wintering 
brood  sows. 

(2)  Wlien  half  the  ration  consisted  of  alfalfa,  alfalfa  meal 
gave  faster  gains  with  less  grain  than  chopped  alfalfa,  bnt  the 
difference  was  not  enough  to  pay  for  the  extra  cost  of  the 
alfalfa  meal. 


.■^-^ 

ii'iii' 

i.li;; 

"'i' 
■';:' 

i 

''!'■■■ 

hjM) 

Ijij;; 

ii  '■ ' ! 

■i'lii 

.,H" 

— -- 

Fig.  46A. — Side  view  of  alfalfa  rack  for  swine. 


!:;','•  vi;!  ill' 

I M 

'■■  .'I  I'll' 
ii"ii|;  "i| 

'I  i|i  1. 1 1 1 .  li , 


Fig.  46B  — End  view  of 
alfalfa  rack. 

The  rack  is  made  of  l"x4"stuff.  It  is  3  feet  high,  6  feet  long,  and  10  inches  wide.  The 
topis  open,  the  ends  solid,  and  the  four-inch  slats  have  four-inch  spaces  between  them. 
The  trough  along  each  side  is  4  inches  deep;  and  extends  7  inches  beyond  the  bottom  of  the 
rack.    (Col.  Bui.  140.) 


(3)  The  average  of  four  tests  with  160  pigs  showed  tliat 
rations  containing  one-fourth  alfalfa  produced  slower  gains 
than  a  ration  of  corn  alon(^,  or  of  9  parts  of  com  and  1  part 
of  alfalfa.  It  would  seem  that  a  ration  containing  one-fourth 
alfalfa  is  not  as  satisfactory  for  faltciiiiig  liogs  as  a  ration  of 
corn  alone,  or  a  ration  containing  a  larger  pn)])(»rlion  ot  cnrn 
and  a  smaller  proj)ortion  of  alfalfa. 

(4)  Alfalfa  meal  proved  more  sati'sfactor\-  than  chojiped 
alfalfa  when  the  ration  consisted  (»f  one  part  of  alfalfa  to  three 
]iarts  of  corn. 


PASTURE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  203 

(5)  111  tlii-cc  tests  with  UO  ]M<]:;s,  a  ration  foiitaiiiiiii;  1)  parts 
of  corn  to  1  part  of  alfalfa  proved  more  profitable  than  corn 
alone. 

(6)  When  the  alfalfa  eonii)rise(l  onlv  one-tenth  of  the  ration, 
chopped  alfalfa  and  alfalfa  meal  gave  almost  the  same  gains, 
but  the  chopped  alfalfa  proved  more  profitable  o%ving  to  its 
lower  cost. 

(7)  In  three  tests  with  00  hogs,  the  feeding  of  corn  with 
alfalfa  hay  in  a  rack  gave  very  similai-  retnrns  to  feeding  9 
parts  of  corn  mixed  witli  1  ]>art  of  chopped  alfalfa,  with  the 
difference  in  favor  of  rack  feeding. 

(S)  The  results  of  5  years'  indicate  that  fur  fattening 
hogs  the  way  to  feed  alfalfa  most  satisfactorily  is  to  feed  it 
without  grinding  or  choj)ping. 

(9)  In  these  tests  50  pounds  of  hay  were  worth  more  in 
the  ration  than  a  bushel  of  com. 

(10)  The  rations  used  in  these  tests  are  ranked  in  order 
of  merit  as  follows : 

1st.     Com  and  alfalfa  hay  in  a  rack. 

2d.  9  parts  corn  and   1   part  clio|)|;t'(l  alfalfa. 

3d.  9  i)arts  corn  and   1   jjart  alfalfa  mt-al. 

4th.     Corn   alone. 

5tli.     ',i  parts  corn  and   1    part  alfalfa   meal. 

6th.     3  parts  corn  and   1   ])art  chopped  alfalfa. 

7th.     1  part  corn  and  1  part  chopj)ed  alfalfa. 

Sth.     1  part  corn  and  1  part  alfalfa  meal. 

(11)  It  is  reconnnended  to  feed  the  finest  and  brightest  hay 
possible.     Hogs  will  not  eat  the  coarse  stems. 

REVIEW. 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  pork  were  produced  from  a  ton  of  alfalfa 
hay?     How  does  it  compare  with  corn? 

2.  In  the  Kansas  trials  how  much  pork  was  ])roduced  per  acre  of 
alfalfa? 

3.  Mention  three  or  four  ways  of  feec^nfi;  alfalfa. 


204        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

4.  Give  the  value  of  rape  as  green  feed  for  pigs. 

5.  How   does   rape   compare   with   clover?      With   alfalfa?      With   soy 
beans? 

6.  Tell   of  the   values  as   pasture   of  clover,   of  timothy,   of  vetch,   of 
blue  grass. 

7.  \Miat  is  the  value  as  a  pasture  mixture  of  rape,  oats,  and  <'lover? 

8.  Tell  of  the  relative  values  of  first  and  second  growth  sorghum. 

9.  How  may  soy  beens  and  cow-peas  be  used  as  forage  for  hogs?     Will 
it  pay  ? 

10.  Tell  of  the  results  of  "  hogging  off  "  rye. 

11.  Give  four  conclusions  in  the  trials  with  various  forage  crops. 

12.  Tell  of  the  methods  and  results  in  using  Jerusalem  artichokes. 

13.  Compare  pasturing  with   soiling  methods  for  swine. 

14.  Tell  of  the  needs  for  grains  when  hogs  are  on  pasture. 

l.T.  Give   the   most    important   points    in   the   results   of   the   Nebraska 
trials  with  different  forms  of  alfalfa. 


^ 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

ROOTS,  POTATOES,  PUMPKINS,  APPLES,  AND  DAIRY 
BY-PRODUCTS. 

Roots. — lu  Henry's  '*  Feeds  and  Feeding ''  there  is  an 
excellent  summary  of  Danish  experiments  with  roots  for  swine. 
The  meal  equivalent  of  roots  was  found  to  vary  in  a  marked 
degi'ee  in  different  trials,  and  100  jxyunds  of  barley  were  found 
to  be  equivalent  to  600  to  800  pounds  of  mangels  and  400  to 
SOO  pounds  of  stock  beets.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
wide  variations  in  the  meal  equivalent  of  rootvS  have  also 
occurred  in  various  tests.  The  following  table  gives  an  idea  of 
the  range  of  values  found  at  several  stations: 

Meal  Equivalent  of  Roots. 

Central    Experiment    Farm    100  pounds  meal  =  786  pounrls  roots 

Ohio   Experiment   Station    100  pounds  meal  =  642.5  pounds  roots 

Montana  Experiment  Station    ....    100  pounds  meal  =  .529  pounds  roots 

Utah  Experiment   Station    100  pounds  meal  :=  45.5  po'inds  roots 

Ontario  Agricultural   College    ....    100  pounds  meal  =: 441.5  pounds  roots 

Average    100  pounds  meal  =:  570. S  pounds  roots 

The  variations  in  these  trials  is  similar  to  the  variation.'^ 
in  the  Danish  experiments.  Ontario  obtained  a  remarkably 
high  meal  equivalent  for  roots,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that 
in  the  Ontario  trials  the  roots  were  pulped  and  mixed  with  an 
equal  weight  of  meal,  the  hogs  being  fed  all  they  would  eat  of 
the  mixture. 

In  the  writer's  experience  hogs  fed  roots  are  thriftier  look- 
ing and  posisess  better  appetites  than  hogs  fed  meal  alone,  and 
it  is  no  doubt  due  to  their  influence  upon  the  general  health 
of  the  animal  that  roots  are  able  to  make  such  a  favorable 
showing.  The  degree  to  which  the  general  thrift  of  the  animals 

(205) 


206        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

is  injured  by  exclusive  meal  feeding;  will  be  reflected  in  the 
relative  feeding  value  shown  by  roots  and  gjain,  and  this  fact 
renders  extreme  variations  quite  possible. 

Generally  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that  sugar  beets  possess 
the  highest  feeding  value  among  ordinary  roots,  and  are  most 
readily  eaten  by  'swine.  Maugels,  Swede  turnips,  and  carrots 
may  be  counted  practically  equal  in  value,  but  hogs  eat  mangels 
with  greater  relish  than  they  eat  turnips. 

Potatoes. — At  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  141 
pounds  of  potatoes,  cooked  and  fed  t<>  swine,  proved  ('(lual  to 
100  pounds  of  com  meal.  In  "Feeds  and  Fociling,"  Ilciiiy 
summarizes  Danish  experiments,  where  400  ponnds  of  jxttatoes 
proved  equal  to  100  pounds  of  mixtnl  meal.  In  connection  with 
these  investigations.  Professor  Henry  says :  "  In  general,  Ave 
may  say  that  a  bushel  of  corn  is  worth  four  and  one-half  bushels 
of  potatoes  for  fattening  purposes  when  cooked  and  fed  with 
com  meal.  Potatoes  may  have  a  higher  value  than  the  rating 
here  given,  in  furnishing  variety  in  ration  to  growing  animals." 

Potatoes  must  be  cooked  for  swine,  and  this  item  of  expense 
cancels  some  of  the  advantage  which  they  possess  over  roots  as 
a. feed  for  swine. 

The  sweet  potato  contains  more  starch  and  less  protein  than 
ordinary  potatoes.  In  the  South,  it  is  used  quite  connnonly  for 
hog  feeding.  The  Florida  Station  (Bulletin  90)  reports  a  four 
weeks'  test  with  hogs  which  were  nearly  full  grown.  They  were 
fed  shorts  and  sweet  potatoes  in  the  proportion  of  one  })Ound  of 
shorts  to  between  five  and  six  pounds  of  sweet  potatoes.  The 
gains  were  large,  and  if  the  gain  in  weight  is  valued  at  five 
cents  per  pound,  sweet  potatoes  would  show  a  value  of  $10.70 
per  ton.  At  the  same  station,  young  pigs  lost  weight  on  sweet 
potatoes  alone,  and  hogs  weighing  a  little  over  100  pounds  each 
at  the  commencement  of  the  test  made  an  average  daily  gain  per 
head  of  slightly  over  half  a  pound.  In  the  last  mentioned  test, 
the  sweet  potatoes  showed  a  value  of  $3.00  per  ton  when  the 


ROOTS  AND  DAIRY  BY-PRODUCTS  207 

gain  iu  weight  is  valued  at  live  cents  per  pound.  In  another  test, 
sweet  potatoes  were  fed  with  rape  as  compared  with  corn  and 
rape.  Pigs  fed  sweet  potatoes  and  rape  made  an  average  daily 
gain  per  pig  of  0.4  pound,  and  those  on  corn  and  rape,  0.0  pound. 

Florida  Bulletin  113  reports  an  average  daily  gain  per  head 
of  0.65  pound  in  a  30  days'  trial  with  hogs  fed  equal  parts  of 
corn  and  sweet  potatoes.  Corn  was  valued  at  $1.75  and  sweet 
potatoes  at  $1.00  per  hundred  pounds.  Under  this  valuation,  the 
cost  of  100  pounds  gain  in  weight  was  $6.85. 

The  South  Carolina  Station  found  that  500  pounds  of  sweet 
potatoes  fed  alone  were  equal  to  100  pounds  of  corn,  and  the 
Alahama  Station  obtained  100  pounds  gain  in  weight  for  every 
313  pounds  of  corn  fed  to  hogs  pastured  on  sweet  potatoes. 
Like  other  bulky,  succulent  feeds,  sweet  potatoes  give  best  results 
when  fed  with  a  liberal  meal  ration — one  fairly  rich  in  protein. 

Cassava — This  plant  grows  in  Florida  and  along  the  Gulf 
Coast.  It  grows  fleshy  roots  like  the  sweet  potato.  The  roots  con- 
tain about  30  per  cent  starch,  but  only  about  1.1  per  cent  protein. 

The  Florida  Station  (Bulletin  90)  gives  results  of  tests  of 
cassava  with  swine.  In  a  short  test  (4:  weeks)  with  nearly  full- 
grown  pigs,  cassava  was  fed  with  about  one-third  of  its  weight  of 
shorts.  The  hogs  made  satisfactory  gains  on  the  average,  and  a 
ton  of  cassava  showed  a  value  of  $11.80,  when  the  gain  pro- 
duced was  valued  at  five  cents  per  pound.  Commenting  on  the 
test,  the  author  of  the  bulletin  makes  the  following  statements: 
"  The  pigs  fed  on  cassava  gained  rapidly  at  first,  but  towards  the 
end  of  the  four  weeks  the  gain  was  very  slow.  .  .  .  Cassava 
in  the  raw  state  does  not  seem  to  be  palatable  even  to  the  hog." 

In  another  test,  cassava  alone,  and  equal  parts  of  cassava  and 
sweet  potatoes  were  fed  to  two  groups  of  young  pigs.  In  both 
cases  the  pigs  lost  weight.  Older  pigs  showed  a  very  small  gain 
on  cassava  alone,  but  it  was  not  a  profitable  feed  used  in  this  way. 

Like  roots  and  potatoes,  it  would  seem  that  cassava  should 
be  accompanied  with  a  liberal  meal  ration  when  fed  to  hogs. 


208        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

Pumpkins  and  Squashes. — Pumpkins  Wong  to  the  same 
class  of  feeds  as  roots,  giving  bulk  and  succulence  to  the  ration 
and  thus  promoting  thrift.  J.  IT.  Grrisdale,  Central  Experi- 
mental Farm,  has  a  high  opinion  of  pumpkins  for  swine.  He 
says :  "  We  cook  them  and  mix  meal  witli  them,  and  I  don't 
think  there  is  anything  that  will  surpass  them  as  a  cheap 
fattening  ration."  He  also  states  that  the  pigs  like  the  seeds 
best,  and  that  no  injury  comes  from  feeding  the  seeds.  Ex- 
cellent results  were  obtained  at  the  New  Hampshire  Experiment 
Station  from  feeding  raw  pumpkin's  with  meal  and  skim-niilk. 

The  Oregon  Experiment  Station  found  that  a  200-pound 
hog  consuming  20  pounds  of  cooked  pumpkin  and  a  small 
amount  of  shorts  gained  1.2  pounds  per  day.  Other  in- 
vestigators have  found  that  273  pounds  of  grain  and  376 
pounds  of  raw  })unipkin  produced  100  pounds  of  pork.  Some 
experiments  show  that  cooking  pumpkins  does  not  add  to  their 
value. 

The  squash  may  bo  counted  as  equal  to  the  pumpkin  in 
feeding  value. 

Apples. — Apples  do  not  appear  to  possess  a  high  feeding 
value,  but  may  often  be  used  to  good  advantage  to  give  variety 
and  succulence  to  a  ration.  They  are  perhaps  most  suitable 
for  mature  breeding  stock,  but  a  liog  should  never  be  expected 
to  subsist  upon  apples  as  the  nuiin  part  of  its  ration. 

Skim-Milk. — The  results  of  nineteen  trials  with  eighty- 
eight  pigs  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  are  well  sum- 
marized by  Henry  in  "  Feeds  and  Feeding."  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  when  a  small  proportion  of  skim-milk  is  fed 
with  meal,  the  milk  shows  a  higher  meal  equivalent  than  when 
a  large  proixirtion  is  fed;  that  is  to  say,  it  requires  a  smaller 
amount  of  skim-milk  to  be  equivalent  to  a  given  amount  of 
meal  when  a  small  proportion  of  milk  to  meal  is  used.  Henry 
summarizes  the  Wisconsin  results  as  follows : 


ROOTS  AND  DAIRY  BY-PRODUCTS  209 

Meal  Equivalents  of  SJi'ini-MUk. 


Proportion  of  milk  to  meal. 

Pounds  of  milk  equivalent  to  100  poundv 
meal. 

1  lb.  corn  meal,  1  to  3  lbs.  milk 

1  lb.  corn  meal,  3  to  5  Ib.s.  milk 

1  lb   corn  meal,  o  to  7  lb.s.  milk 

1  lb.  corn  meal,  7  to  9  lbs.  milk 

Average  of  19  trials 

327  lbs.  milk  =  100  lbs.  meal. 
446  lbs.  milk  =  100  lbs.  meal. 
574  lbs.  milk  =  100  lbs.  meal. 
552  lbs.  milk  =  100  lbs.  meal. 
475  lbs.  milk  =  100  lbs.  meal. 

The  Ontario  Aiiricnltiiral  College  reports  a  trial  in  which 
355.6  pounds  of  skini-niilk  proved  equal  to  100  pounds  of  meal. 
Tlie  proportion  of  milk  to  meal  was  about  2.5  to  1,  and  the 
result  is  similar  ti)  the  Wisconsin  result  with  a  similar  propor- 
tion of  milk  to  meal. 

The  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  reports  six  trials  in 
which  the  i)roportion  of  milk  to  meal  varied,  the  highest  pro- 
portion being  about  5  pounds  of  milk  to  one  of  meal.  The 
average  of  these  trials  gives  467  pounds  of  milk  equivalent  to 
100  pounds  of  meal,  which  is  very  close  to  the  Wisconsin 
average. 

Utah  experiments  show  431  pounds  of  skim-milk  equal  to 
100  pounds  of  grain,  and  Tennessee  experiments  476  pounds  of 
skim-milk  equal  to  100  pounds  of  grain.  The  Tennessee  results 
are  practically  identical  with  the  Wisconsin  average,  and  the 
Utah  results  are  rea.sonably  close. 

These  experiments  show  that,  where  skim-milk  can  be  ob- 
tained cxjnveniently  and  in  suitable  quantity,  it  has  a  very 
considerable  value  in  hog  feeding.  \Mien  meal  is  worth  $20.00 
per  ton,  skim-milk  is  easily  worth  20  cents  per  hundred  pounds, 
unless  an  exceptional  amount  of  labor  is  involved  in  procuring 
it  For  young  pigs  just  after  weaning,  however,  its  value  is 
very  much  higher  than  for  older  hogs. 

Sweet    vs.    Sour    Skim-Milk. — Several    experiments    with 

sweet  and  .-^our  .■^kim-milk   indicate  that  there  is  little  or  no 

difference  in  the  feeding  value  of  the  two  products, — in  fact, 
14 


210        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

the  sour  milk  has,  if  anjthine:.  had  the  advantage.  For  very 
yoimc;  piijs  sweet  milk  is  preferal>le. 

Whey. — At  the  Ontario  Agi'icultiiral  College,  the  writer 
conducted  seven  trials  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  the  value  of 
whey  for  pig  feeding.  The  average  of  these  seven  trials  gives 
744.5  pounds  of  whey  equivalent  to  100  pounds  of  meal. 

Two  trials  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  give  an 
average  of  800  pounds  of  whey  equivalent  to  100  pounds  of 
meal. 

These  trials  probably  show  the  maximum  value  of  whey  for 
pig  feeding.  Under  ordinary  methods  of  feeding,  it  would 
hardly  be  safe  to  expect  quite  as  good  returns  for  whey.  Where 
labor  is  involved  in  procuring  the  whey,  due  allowance  must 
be  made  in  estimating  the  value  of  this  product. 

Sweet  vs.  Sour  Whey. — Five  trials  made  by  the  writer 
failed  to  show  any  api)reciable  difference  between  the  feeding 
value  of  sweet  and  sour  whey. 

Separated  vs.  Ordinary  Whey. — In  an  experiment  con- 
ducted by  the  writer,  ordinary  whey  proved  to  be  worth  twenty- 
five  per  cent  more  than  separated  whey.  The  separated  whey 
had  been  run  through  the  cream  separator  to  remove  the  fat 
for  making  whey  butter. 

Buttermilk. — Experiments  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College  and  elsewhere  show  that  buttermilk  is  ])ra('tically  equal 
to  skim-milk  for  feediug  pigs. 

Substitutes  for  Skim-Milk. — For  young  pigs  just  after 
weaning,  it  is  difficult  to  find  anything  that  will  take  the  place 
of  skim-milk,  ^^^len  skim-milk  is  not  available,  there  is  danger 
of  the  pigs  becoming  stunted  at  this  period  of  their  life, 
especially  pigs  that  are  weaned  young.  The  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College  conducted  two  trials  with  Swift's  digester  tank- 
age and  blood  meal  as  substitutes  for  skim-milk.  These  two 
feeds  proved  nearly  equal  in  value,  and,  since  the  tankage  costs 
nmch  less  per  ton,  it  was  regarded  as  the  more  satisfactory. 


ROOTS  AND  DAIRY  BY-PRODUCTS  211 

In  the  first  trijil  tlio  tankas^e  constituted  ahont  one-foiirtoentli 
of  the  total  ration,  and  in  tlie  second  trial  one-tenth  of  the 
total  ration. 

About  two  pounds  of  milk  to  one  pound  of  meal  were  fed 
in  each  trial. 

The  average  of  the  two  trials  shows  that  to  produce  100 
pounds  of  gain  it  required : 

375  pounds  meal  and  34  pounds  tankage. 

390  pounds  meal  and  727  pounds  skim-milk. 

The  pigs  getting  tankage  ate  their  feed  quite  as  eagerly  as 
those  getting  skim-milk,  and  continued  thrifty  throughout  the 
experiment. 

Tankage,  therefore,  proved  a  very  satisfactory  substitute, 
so  far  as  gains  in  weight  were  concerned,  but,  when  skim-milk 
can  be  obtained  at  15  cents  per  hundredweight,  it  is  cheaper 
than  tankage  at  prevailing  prices. 

In  other  experiments  by  the  writer,  the  results  of  which 
have  not  been  published,  other  substances,  such  as  linseed  meal, 
"  black-strap  "  molasses,  and  tea  from  alfalfa  hay,  have  been 
tried,  but  none  of  these  approached  tankage  in  efficiency  as  a 
substitute  for  skim-milk  for  young  pigs. 

The  ^Michigan  Experiment  Station  also  compared  tankage 
with  skim-milk  for  young  pigs.  The  pigs  on  skim-milk  made 
slightly  larger  gains,  but,  when  skim-milk  was  valued  at  20 
cents  per  100  pounds  and  tankage  at  $1.0214  per  100  pounds, 
the  tankage-fed  pigs  made  cheaper  gains  than  the  skim-milk  pigs. 

Garbage. — Large  hotels,  boarding  houses,  and  institutions 
have  much  kitchen  refuse,  often  used  in  hog  feeding.  Such  ma- 
terial possesses  considerable  feeding  value,  but  there  are  serious 
dangers  connected  with  its  use.  Ordinary  garbage  is  likely  to 
contain  broken  glass  or  crockery,  washing  powders,  lye,  poisonous 
medicines,  and  other  substances  which  may  prove  fatal  to  hogs. 
In  addition,  ptomaines  may  develop  in  fermenting  garbage,  and 
the  hog  seems  to  be  very  susceptible  to  ptomaine  poisoning. 


212        RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

Bulletin  Xo.  141  of  the  Cornell  Station  deals  with  "  Pow- 
dered Soap  as  a  Cause  of  Death  Among-  Swill-fed  Hogs."  In 
connection  with  the  many  fatalities  resulting  from  feeding  swill, 
the  following  statement  occurs  in  the  bulletin :  "  In  view  of  this 
danger,  it  seems  better  to  abandon  altogether  the  habit  of  giving 
dishwater  to  hogs.  Although  the  feeding  of  garbage  is  gen- 
erally condemned,  the  scraps  of  vegetables  and  table  refuse  could, 
perhaps,  if  properly  collected,  be  used  with  safety.  But  cer- 
tainly pure  water  is  a  much  more  wholesome  drink,  even  for 
swine,  than  dirty  dishwater.  When  the  subject  of  swill-feeding 
as  a  business  is  studied,  and  the  conditions  as  they  exist  arc  under- 
stood, the  wonder  is,  not  that  some  of  the  hogs  die,  but  rather 
that  any  of  them  live."  The  bulletin  also  points  out  the  dangers 
connected  with  feeding  decaying  garbage  apart  from  the  dish- 
water, and  the  danger  of  hog  cholera  and  swine  plague  germs 
being  carried  in  the  garbage. 

The  man  who  would  feed  garbage  should  make  arrangements 
to  have  all  dishwater,  broken  dishes,  lye,  etc.,  kept  separate  from 
the  table  and  kitchen  scraps.  Only  the  table  and  kitchen  scraps, 
of  course,  should  be  used,  and,  before  using,  this  material  should 
be  sorted,  and  finally  cooked  if  one  wishes  to  keep  on  the  safe  side. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  the  average  equivalent  of  roots  for  100  pounds  moal.  What 
kind  of  roots  are  best? 

2.  Give  the  meal  equivalent  for  potatoes.     How  are  they  to  be  fed? 

3.  Tell  of  the  value  of  j)unipkins  for  swine.     How  may  they  be  fed? 

4.  Tell  of  the  suitability  and  value  of  apples  for  swine. 

5.  How  does  the  proportion  of  skini-niilk  fed  alTect  its  meal  i(iui\  aleiit  ? 
Give  the  average. 

6.  How  do  sweet  and  sour  skim-milk  compare  as  feed  for  pigs? 

7.  What  is  the  meal  equivalent  of  wliey  ?  Is  tliere  danger  in  letting 
it  sour? 

8.  ^^^lat  is  separated  whey?  How  does  it  compare  with  ordinary 
whey? 

9.  How  does  buttermilk  comiiare  with  skini milk  for  pigs? 

10.  Mention  some  of  the  best  substitutes  for  skim  milk  for  pigs. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
PREPARATION  OF  FEED. 

Cooking  and  Steaming. — Years  ago  there  was  a  popular 
belief  tluit  cooking  or  steaming  feed  increased  its  digestibility, 
and  hence  its  feeding  value.  The  work  of  experiment  stations 
and  private  investigators  has  thoroughly  exploded  this  idea, 
and  indicates  that  digestibility  may  be  decreased  rather  than 
increased  by  cooking  in  the  case  of  many  feeds.  There  are 
some  feeds  which  are  rendered  more  palatable  by  cooking,  such 
as  potatoes  and  beans,  but  in  the  case  of  feeds  which  are  eaten 
readily  without  cooking,  it  may  be  taken  as  settled  that  cooking 
or  steaming  is  poor  economy.  Instead  of  being  a  commend- 
able practice,  cooking  is  something  which  should  be  avoided  as 
far  as  circumstances  will  permit,  and  employed  only  when  feeds 
are  not  acceptable  in  the  raw  state.  Where  economy  is  no  object, 
one  may  secure  larger  gains  in  weight  by  cooking  portions  of  the 
feed  to  make  the  ration  more  palatable,  thus  stimulating  the 
appetite,  but  such  gains  usually  come  at  comparatively  high  cost. 

Grinding. — The  question  of  grinding  was  discussed  under 
com,  and  it  was  shown  that,  so  far  as  corn  is  concerned,  the 
gain  from  grinding  is  comparatively  small.  Xumerous  experi- 
ments have  been  made  ^\^th  other  grains  to  determine  the  effect 
of  grinding,  it  being  generally  supposed  that  grinding  would  bo 
more  effective  in  the  case  of  small  grains  than  it  would  be  with 
com.  Tt  is  out  of  tlie  qncstion  to  review  experimental  work  in 
detail  in  regard  to  this  point,  but  it  may  l3e  said  that  grinding 
small  grains,  such  as  peas,  barley,  oats,  and  rye,  has  almost 
invariably  proved  beneficial.  Sometimes  the  advantage  of  the 
ground  grain  has  been  very  slight,  and  sometimes  very  marked, 
but  the  general  e.virlence  indicates  that  it  is  advisable,  when 
practicable,  to  grind  such  grains.  T\lien  the  cost  of  grinding  is 
excessively  high,  the  practice  may  not  be  advisable,  but,  under 

(213) 


214       RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

ordinary  circuinatances,  it  is  the  safe  course.  According  to  a 
compilation  of  experiment  station  results,  by  G.  M.  Rommel 
(Bulletin  47,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.),  the  average  saving  effected 
by  grinding  small  grains  is  12.2G  per  cent,  which  is  double  the 
saving  effected  by  grinding  com  in  the  Wisconsin  experiments. 

Wet  vs.  Dry  Feed. — Considerable  experimental  work  has 
been  done  with  wet  and  dry  feed,  and  results  are  very  con- 
tradictory. On  an  average,  the  two  methods  of  feeding  show 
practically  equal  results.  The  writer's  experience  is  that  when 
hogs  can  be  fed  dry  meal  in  such  a  manner  that  they  cannot 
waste  it,  they  make  as  good  use  of  it  as  when  it  is  wet.  There 
is  more  tendency  to  waste  feed  wlieu  fed  dry,  especially  when 
many  feed  at  the  same  trough.  Troughs  arranged  so  as  to  pre- 
vent crowding  will  tend  to  lessen  waste.  In  cold  pens,  dry  meal 
feeding  has  some  advantages,  a  good  ration  is  to  mix  dry  meal 
with  an  equal  weight  of  pulped  roots.  Under  ordinary  condi- 
tions, it  is  difficult  to  see  much  advantage  from  dr\'  feeding. 

Soaking. — Soaking  feed  is  another  practice  which  seems 
to  give  variable  results  according  to  experimental  data.  There 
seems  little  doubt,  however,  that,  in  the  case  of  dry  hard  grain 
fed  whole,  soaking  is  to  be  commended.  As  to  meal,  freshly 
mixed  feed  will  likely  give  as  good  results  as  soaked  feed. 

Fermenting. — The  practice  cf  fermenting  feed  for  swine 
was  formerly  much  more  common  than  it  is  at  present.  In  the 
case  of  cottonseed  meal,  it  will  be  remembered  that  the  Texas 
Station  recommends  mixing  the  cottonseed  meal  with  other 
meal  and  allowing  the  whole  mass  to  sour.  The  I^ew  Hamp- 
shire Station  obtained  better  results  from  fermented  bran  than 
from  unfermented.  With  feeds  well  adapted  to  pig  feeding, 
it  is  not  likely  that  fermentation  would  be  of  any  benefit. 

METHODS    OT''    FEKDTXO. 

"  Hog  Motor  Grinder "  vs.  "  Hopper." — The  Maryland 
Experiment  Station  (Bulletin  150)  reports  tests  with  the  "hog 
motor  grinder,"  a  contrivance  by  which  hogs  grind  their  own 


PREPARATION  OF  FEED 


215 


grains  as  they  require  it.  (Fig.  47.)  The  grinder  was  com- 
pared with  a  self-feed  ho]>per.  In  the  first  test  whole  corn  was 
used  in  the  hopper,  and  in  the  second  ground  corn.  The  pigs 
were  from  four  to  five  months  old  when  the  experiment  began. 

In  tlie  first  test  hopper-fed  pigs  made  an  average  daily  gain 
per  pig  of  1.85  jwunds,  and  gTinder-fed  pigs  1.05  pounds. 

The  feed  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain  was  as  follows: 

Hopper  pigs. — Corn,  25(>  pounds;  middlings,  68  pounds;  milk.  839  pounds. 
(Iriiidcr  pigs. — Corn,  22-1  pounds;  niiddlinjrs,  76  pounds:  milk,  :?85  pounds 


Fig.  47. — Hog  motor  grinder  and  feeder.    With  this  machine  hogs  grind  their  own  feed. 

In  the  second  test  hopper-fed  pigs  averaged  a  daily  gain 

per  pig  of  2.11  pounds,  and  the  grinder-fed  pigs,  1.86  pounds. 

The  feed  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain  in  second  test  was: 

TJopper  pigs. — Corn,  287  pounds;   middlings,  71   pounds. 
Grindrr  pigs. — Corn.  273  pounds:  middlings,  80  poimds. 

The  author  of  the  bulletin  states :  "  The  motor  grinder  and 
feeder  gave  good  results  in  two  tests.  However,  when  used  in 
comparison  with  hopper  feeding  of  both  shelled  com  and  corn 
meal,  tlie  margin  of  profit  was  in  favor  of  the  hopper-fed  pigs." 

Hopper  Feeding  vs.  Trough  Feeding. — Bulletin  150  also 
reports  two  tvsts  in  which  the  .self-feed  hopper  (Fig.  48)  was 
compared  with  trough  feeding.  In  the  first  test  were  10  five- 
months-old  pigs,  and  in  the  second,  10  three  and  one-half  months. 


216       RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWINE  FEEDING 

In  the  first  test  all  tlie  ])igs  were  fed  a  mixture  of  ground 
corn,  wheat  middlings,  and  bran ;  and  in  the  second  test, 
hominy  chop  and  middlings.     Tn  each  test  dry  meal  was  fed 

in  the  liopjK'rs,  and  wet  meal  in  tlie  troughs.     The  results  were: 


First   Teat:   Hopper  fed. — Average   daily   gain   per   pig,   .71    pound. 

Meal  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain,  520  pounds. 
Trough  fed. — Average  daily  gain  per  pig,  .73  pound. 

Meal  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain,  478  pounds. 
Second  Tesf;  Hopper  fed. — Average  daily  gain  per  pig,  1.2()  jjounds. 

iVfeal  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain,  387  pounds. 
Trough  fed. — Average  daily  gain  per  pig,  1.36  pounds. 

Meal  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain,  348  pounds. 

Xoticc  that  in  both  testes  trough-fed  i)igs  gained  the  more 
rapidly  and  cheaply,  though  the  labor  is  less  with  hoppers. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  was  the  old  helief  as  to  the  value  of  cooking  feed  for  swine? 
\\niat  do  the  trials  show? 

2.  What  is  shown  regarding  the  henefit  of  grinding  small  grains  and 
com  for  swine?    Under  what  circumstances  does  it  pay? 

3.  Give  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  wetting  or  soaking  feeds? 

4.  Tell  of  the  metliod  of  feeding  by  use  of  a  hog  motor  grinder. 

5.  Compare  it  with  the  hopper  method. 

6.  How  does  hopper  feeding  compare  with  trough  feeding? 


PART  V 

FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


CHAPTER  XXV. 
THE  BOAR. 

Use. — The  age  at  which  a  young  boar  may  bo  first  used 
depends  largely  upon  his  development.  Some  boars  may  be 
used  to  a  few  sows  wheu  not  more  than  seven  months  old, 
without  apparent  injury.  As  a  rule,  it  is  safer  not  to  use  a 
Iwar  before  he  is  eight  months  old,  and  to  use  him  as  sparingly 
as  possible  until  he  is  a  year  old.  I^o  hard-and-fast  rule  can 
be  laid  down,  and  the  owner  must  use  his  judgment  in  the 
matter.  Excessive  use  when  young  is  likely  to  shorten  the 
period  of  a  boar's  usefulness,  and,  since  a  boar  will  usually  pro- 
duce the  best  pigs  after  he  reaches  maturity,  the  importance  of 
saving  him  while  he  is  young  will  be  readily  appreciated. 

Some  good  breeders  allow  only  one  service  a  day,  with 
intervals  of  one  or  two  days  a  w^eek  ^vithout  being  used,  in  the 
case  of  valuable  boars.  This  is  a  matter  which  can  be  regu- 
lat((l  belter  in  larg-e  herds,  where  several  stock  boars  are  kept, 
than  it  can  where  only  one  boar  is  kept  and  where  outside 
sows  are  admitted.  The  owner  of  a  boar  under  the  last-named 
conditions  will  require  to  exercise  all  his  ingenuity  to  prevent 
his  boar  from  being  used  too  freely  during  certain  seasons  of 
the  year. 

In  no  case  should  more  than  one  sen'ice  to  a  sow  be  per- 
mitted, and  the  boar  should  not  be  allowed  to  nm  at  large  with 
sows  to  which  he  is  to  be  bred.  Excessive  use  is  likely  to  result 
in  small,  weak  litters,  and  the  aim  should  be  to  save  the  boar  as 
much  as  possible.     It  is  not  good  to  use  a  boar  immediately 

after  he  has  been  fed. 

(219) 


220  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Exercise. — Probably  nothing  is  more  essential  to  the  health 
and  vigor  of  an  animal  than  exercise.  In  summer  it  is  usually 
a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  provide  exercise  in  a  ])addock 
or  pasture  lot,  but  in  winter  it  is  rather  more  difficult  to 
furnish  this.  A  roomy  pen  should  be  provided,  with  a 
sheltered  outside  yard. 

When  practicable,  it  is  well  to  feed  the  boar  out-doors  at 
some  distance  from  his  sleeping  quarters,  thus  compelling  him 
to  take  exercise  in  walking  back  and  forth  between  his  pen  and 
the  feeding  place.  Icy  ground  is  the  greatest  dra\vl);ick  to  this 
method,  l)ut  this  can  be  overcome  by  littering  the  walk  with 
some  strawy  horse  manure.  Sonu'times  the  boar  can  be  fed  in  a 
WTll-littered  barnyard,  which  makes  a  very  good  arrangement 
when  practicable. 

When  several  boars  are  k(']it,  it  is  difficult  to  provide 
separate  runs  for  each  boar,  and  it  t^implifies  matters  if  they 
are  taught  to  run  together.  The  tusks  should  he  removed 
and  a  cool  day  should  be  selected  for  turning  them  together 
for  the  first  time.  It  takes  a  very  short  time,  as  a  rule,  to 
settle  the  (piestion  of  su]>renuicy,  and  when  once  settled  no 
further  disputes  arise.  The  writer  has  liad  considerable  ex- 
])erience  with  this  method,  and  has  never  known  bad  results 
to  follow.  Tlie  two  mentioiiod  conditions  ;ii'(^  necessary, — 
iiaiiicly,  llic  tusks  uiust  be  broken  oil'  and  :i  cool  day  S(dected 
for  the  founiiiment  wliicli  decides.  After  tliis  lii-st  struggle  has 
taken  ])hice,  the  boars  will  live  together  (piite  as  jx-aceably  as 
sows. 

Removing  Tusks. — Armed  with  long,  sliarj)  tusks,  tlie  boar 
is  capable  of  inflicting  serious  injury  upon  man  or  beast, 
should  he  take  th(>  notion,  ])ut,  deprived  of  his  tusks,  he  Ix^comes 


THE  BOAR 


221 


comparatively  harmless.  It  is  the  ])art  of  wisdom,  therefore, 
to  remove  these  tusks  before  any  damage  is  done,  because  we 
never  know  what  the  quietest  boar  may  do  under  provocation. 
Several  methods  may  be  cmjdoyed,  and  tlio  following  one  will 
answer  very  well.  The  boar  is  first  made  fast  to  a  post  by 
means  of  a  rope  noosed  about  his  upper  jaw  back  of  the  upper 


Fia.  49. — Yearling  iJLrk^hirc  Luar,  a  Cauadiin  p 


tusks.  Then  one  man  takes  a  crowbar  and  another  a  sharp 
cold  chisel  and  a  hammer.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  crowbar 
is  placed  against  the  tusk  near  its  base,  and  lield  firmly  in 
position,  and  tlie  edge  of  the  cold  chisel  is  placed  on  tho  oppo- 
site side  of  the  tusk  directly  across  from,  and  even  with,  the 
edge  of  the  crowbar.  A  sharp  blow  with  tho  haiumor  on  the 
cold  chisel  does  the  job. 


222  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Feeding. — Jt  requires  good  judgment  to  keep  a  boar  in  the 
best  possible  condition.  (Fig.  49.)  Extremes  are  to  be  avoided. 
The  over-fat  boar  does  not  make  a  satisfactory  sire,  as  a  nde, 
and  a  half-starved  boar  cannot  transmit  vigor  and  constitution 
to  his  progeny  to  the  'same  degree  tliat  he  would  if  properly 
managed.  To  get  the  best  results,  the  boar  should  be  in  fair 
flesh.  A  reasonable  amount  of  fat  on  his  bones  will  do  him 
no  harm  if  he  gets  sufficient  exercise. 

An  exclusive  meal  ration  will  not  give  good  -results, 
especially  if  the  ration  is  made  up  of  corn.  It  is  true  tliat 
corn  can  be  fed  to  a  l>oar  without  injuring  him,  but  it  must  be 
fed  in  the  right  way.  Corn  is  fattening,  but  its  exclusive  Tise 
is  debilitating,  and  the  feeder  must  combine  something  with 
it  to  get  good  results.  Equal  parts  ground  com,  ground  oats, 
and  wheat  middlings  make  a  good  meal  ration.  Equal  parts 
ground  oats  and  middlings  make  a  first-class  meal  ration  when 
com  is  not  used.  It  gives  sufficient  bulk,  and  is  nutritious 
without  being  heating  or  too  fattening.  Ground  oats,  middlings, 
or  bran  may  be  used  singly  to  dilute  corn ;  in  fact,  a  very 
great  variety  of  grains  may  bo  fed,  so  long  as  the  feeder  uses 
judgiuent. 

Supplemental  Feeds. — But  a  boar  needs  something  besides 
ffrain  and  meal  to  be  in  his  best  condition.  Skim-milk  and 
buttermilk  are  excellent,  and  will  give  good  residts  with  corn, 
even  if  nothing  else  is  used.  In  winter,  roots  of  any  kind  are 
much  relished.  They  have  a  cooling,  laxative  effect,  preventing 
constipation  and  kee})ing  the  aiiiiiial  thrifty  and  vigorous. 

If  roots  are  not  available,  alfalfa  hay  of  fine  quality  or 
even  fine  red  clover  hay  may  be  used  to  give  bulk  to  the 
ration.  Some  feed  the  alfalfa  hay  dry  in  racks,  and 
others  prefer  to  cut   it  and  soak  it  with  the  meal  ration,  or 


THE  BOAR 


223 


scald  it  witli  boiling  water  before  mixing  witli  the  meal. 
As  a  substitute  for  roots,  the  soaked  or  steeped  alfalfa 
would  be  preferable  to  tlie  dry  hay.  Alfalfa  or  clover  hay 
may  be  fed  along  witli  roots,  and  will  be  found  to  give 
good  results  if  the  feeder  takes  care  to  supply  a  reason- 
able amount  of  concentrated  feed  to  make  the  ration  sufficiently 
nourishing. 

Summer  management  is  usually  simpler  than  winter.     A 
pasture  lot  provided  with  shade  is  one  of  the  best  places  to 


Fio.  50. — BreedinR  crate.     A.  movable  board  hinged  at  left-hand  end  and  held  by  chain  B, 
both  sided  alike;  D,  six  holes  for  the  iron  rod  C  to  assume  various  positions. 

keep  a  boar.  The  grass  or  clover,  or  whatever  the  pasture  may 
consist  of,  will  furnish  the  bulky,  succulent  feed  necessary  for 
health,  and  gathering  part  of  his  food  from  pasture  compels 
the  boar  to  take  exercise.  If  it  is  not  possible  to  provide  the 
pasture,  he  should  be  liberally  supplied  with  green  feed  in  his 
pen. 

The  quantity  of  meal  to  feed  a  boar  will  vary  with  circum- 


224  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

stances.  During  the  season  when  lie  is  used  most  he  aHII 
rc'(|iiii-c  liheral  treatment,  l)ut  at  no  lime  should  lie  be  fed  more 
than  he  will  oat  up  clean  before  leaving  the  trough.  During 
comparatively  idle  seasons,  a  very  light  meal  ratit)n  will  be 
sufficient,  and  if  on  go<")d  pasture  he  will  re(iuii'e  but  little  feed 
in  addition.  It  is  entirely  a  matter  of  ju<lginent,  and  the 
feeder  must  at  all  times  be  governcnl  by  the  condition  of  the 
boar. 

It  is  never  wise  to  make  sudden  changes*  in  the  ration, — 
that  is,  to  change  suddenly  from  a  light  ration  to  a  heavy 
one,  or  from  a  heavy  ration  to  a  light  one.  Changes  should  be 
made  gradually,  and  the  feeder,  Avho  will  know  just  about  when 
the  heaviest  season  commences,  should  start  in  plenty  of  time 
to  prepare  the  boar  for  it. 

Breeding  Crate. — When  it  is  necessary  to  breed  heavy  boars 
to  rather  small  sows,  a  breeding  crate  can  often  be  used  to 
advantage.  There  are  numerous  types  of  breeding  crates,  but 
the  one  we  show  illustration  of  on  page  223  may  be  easily 
made  and  will  in  most  cases  answer  the  purpose  very  well. 
(Fig.  50.) 

The  dimensions  of  the  crate  are:  length  5'  0",  width  2', 
and  height  3'  G".  The  uprights  at  the  comers  are  nuule  of 
2"  X  4"  scantling,  and  the  sides  may  be  made  of  4"  strips  of 
inch  liiiiiber,  with  a  10"  board  at  the  bottom  on  each  side.  The 
suj^i^orts  for  tlie  feet  of  the  boar  (A,  A)  are  hinged  at  the 
front  end  of  the  crate,  and  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  means 
of  the  chains  (B).  On  the  outside  of  the  crate  are  hooks  for 
holding  the  chains.  C  is  an  iron  rod  which  slips  through  holes 
(D)  bored  in  the  bottom  side-boards  of  the  crate.  The  rod 
should  come  just  above  the  hocks  of  the  sow,  and  there  should 
be  enough  holes  to  admit  of  adjusting  the  rod  to  the  size  of  the 


THE  BOAR  225 

sow.  If  it  is  (.lesircJ  to  use  a  small  boar  on  a  large  sow,  the 
crate  may  also  be  made  to  answer  the  purpose  by  simply  plaeing 
a  cleated  sloping  platforai  at  the  rear  of  the  crate. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  three  or  more  points  of  advice  regarding  the  use  of  a  boar. 

2.  How  can  the  boar  be  compelled  to  take  regular  exercise? 

3.  How  can  two  or  more  boars  be  kept  peaceably  together? 

4.  Why  remove  the  boar's  tusks?     Tell  how. 

5.  Give  suggestions  as  to  keeping  the  boar  in  best  condition  of  flesh. 
G.  Mention  the  special  value  for  him  of  such  feeds  as  roots,  skim-milk, 

alfalfa,  and  pasture. 

7.  Tell  of  the  need  of  varj'ing  his  meal  ration. 


IS 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
THE  SOW. 

Age  of  Breeding. — The  age  at  which  a  young  sow  is  first 
bred  will  depend  upon  her  development,  but  it  is  very  seldom 
that  it  is  advisable  to  breed  her  before  she  is  eight  months 
old.  Many  good  breeders  prefer  not  to  breed  sows  before  tliey 
are  ten,  or  even  twelve  months  old,  and  if  they  are  intended 
for  show  purposes  it  is  scarcely  advisable  to  breed  them  earlier. 
One  of  the  gi'eat  objections  to  breeding  sows  very  early  is  the 
fact  that  the  ver}^  young  sow  is  seldom  able  to  raise  a  fair- 
sized  litter  of  pigs,  and  if  she  raises  only  a  few  pigs  in  her 
first  litter  her  mammary  glands  do  not  develop  properly,  and 
she  rarely  makes  as  good  a  nurse  with  subsequent  litters  as 
the  sow  wdiich  raises  a  good-sized  first  litter.  Another  objection 
to  early  breeding  is  the  fact  that  the  very  young  sow  has  not 
the  strength  to  stand  the  strain  of  nursing  a  litter  of  pigs,  and 
her  vitality  is  sa])ped  to  such  a  degree  that  she  never  develops 
as  she  slxniM.  As  a  result,  she  will  not  retain  her  usefulness 
for  so  long  a  period,  nor  is  she  so  likely  to  give  strong,  vigorous 
litters  as  though  she  had  possessed  more  maturity  before  Ixnng 
bred. 

Breeding  Mature  Sows. — Many  sows  will  accept  service  a 
few^  days  after  farrowing,  but  it  is  hardly  necessarv'  to  say 
that  to  breed  a  sow  at  this  time  is  bad  prar.tice.  N^o  sow  can 
do  justice  to  herself  and  two  litters  of  pigs  at  the  same  time, 
and  the  man  who  attempts  to  gain  time  by  following  such  a 
practice  will  surely  lose  by  it  in  the  end. 

Usually  the  sow  may  be  bred  again  a  few  days  after  her 
pigs  are  weaned,  if  not  too  much  pulled  dovm  in  condition  by 

(226) 


THE  SOW  227 

nursing.  If  she  has  raised  a  large  litter  and  is  very  much 
emaciated,  the  chances  are  that  she  will  produce  a  small  litter 
the  next  time  if  she  is  bred  immediately  after  Uie  pigs  are 
weaned.  In  such  cases  she  should  be  given  three  weeks  or  a 
month  of  liberal  feeding  to  enable  her  to  regain  something  of 
her  lost  strength  and  vitality  before  she  is  bred. 

Though  the  sow  need  not  be  fat,  she  should  be  in  good 
lieart  and  thriving  at  the  time  she  is  bred.  Many  a  man  has 
been  puzzled  to  know  why  his  sow,  which  had  raised  a  large 
litter,  sliould  drop  do^^^l  to  four  or  five  pigs  the  next  time. 
The  reason  is  not  difficult  to  find,  because  a  sow  must  be  strong 
and  full  of  vitality  at  the  time  of  service  in  order  to  produce 
a  large,  viirorous  litter. 

Period  of  Gestation. — The  period  of  gestation  in  sows  is 
usually  placed  at  112  days.  Often,  young  sows  will  farrow  a 
few  days  sooner  than  the  stated  time,  and  old  sows  will  fre- 
quently go  a  few  days  over  it.  It  is  not  a  good  sign  when  a 
s(^w  goes  much  over  the  sixteen  weeks,  as  the  litters  are  often 
lacking  in  vitality  when  carried  much  over  time.  If  a  sow 
lias  been  properly  handled,  she  will  seldom  go  more  than  a  few 
days  over  sixteen  we<^'ks.  though  there  are  exceptions  to  all  rules. 

Best  Time  for  Farrowing. — AMiere  ^vinters  are  at  all  severe, 
it  requires  exceptional  skill  and  equipment  to  make  a  success 
of  winter  litters.  Most  farmers  will  find  it  safer  to  have  their 
sows  farrow  in  April  and  October.  It  is  generally  possible  to 
give  April  pigs  a  little  outdoor  exercise  at  an  early  stage  of 
tlieir  growth,  which  will  be  found  a  great  help  in  keeping 
them  healthy  and  thrifty.  The  October  pigs  will  also  be 
able  to  get  outdoor  exercise  for  a  time,  which  will  enable  them 
to  get  a  good  start,  and  make  them  better  able  to  endure  the 
closer  confinement  necessary  during  winter. 

One  or  Two  Litters. — The  man  who  is  breeding  for  show 


228  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

purposes,  and  who  wishes  to  have  his  pigs  with  the  sow  as 
long  as  possible,  as  well  a«  get  his  sows  intt)  high  condition 
between  litters,  will  find  it  necessary  to  breed  his  sows  only 
once  a  year;  but  the  general  practice  of  farmers  is  to  reqnire 
their  sows  to  do  more  than  this.  There  is  no  good  reason  why 
a  sow  shonld  not  ])rn(hu'c  two  litters  a  year  when  properly 
handled,  provided  that  the  sow  is  not  to  be  fitted  for  the  show 
ring. 

Exercise. — Thongh  exercise  is  important  in  the  case  of  tlie 
boar,  it  is  donbly  important  with  sows  during  the  period  of 
gestation.  Without  considerable  exercise  during  this  time, 
sows  cannot  he  made  to  give  satisfactors^  results.  In  summer, 
pasture  should  be  provided  in  which  there  is  plenty  of  shade. 
A  good  pastun'  affords  ideal  conditions  for  sows,  the  green 
feed  and  the  exercise  keeping  the  sows  in  the  best  possible 
condition. 

Winter  Exercise  and  Quarters. — The  greatest  difficulty  will 
1)0  enc(Uintered  in  giving  the  sows  sufiiei(Mit  exercise  during 
the  wintx^r.  AMiere  only  a  few  sows  are  k(^pt,  it  is  often  possible 
to  give  them  the  run  of  a  barn-yard,  where  they  will  take  exer- 
cise rooting  in  the  manure,  or  working  in  scattered  straw  or 
chaff  to  find  what  little  grain  it  may  contain.  If  a  dry,  Avell- 
bedded  sleeping  place  is  provided,  which  is  free  from  draughts, 
the  conditions  are  about  as  good  as  can  Ix*  obtained. 

AVIien  it  is  impossible  to  use  the  baniyard,  a  roomy  shed 
with  earth  floor,  and  a  slec])ing  place  arranged  in  one  comer, 
can  be  made  to  answer  the  pur]iose  very  woW.  By  littering  the 
shed  with  cut  straw  or  chaff  and  sprinkling  a  very  little  whole 
grain  in  the  chaff  ever>'^  day,  the  attendant  can  induce  the 
sows  to  take  considerable  exercise.  Another  method  is  to  use 
portable  pens  set  in  outside  lots.  The  jiens  should  be  placed 
facing  the  south,  and   fifty  yards  or  more  from  the  feeding 


THE  SOW  229 

place.  If  kept  well  bedded,  and  banked  about  the  Iwttom 
with  strawv  horse  manure,  they  luako  comfortable  sleeping 
quarters.  The  sows  are  forced  to  take  exercise  in  walking 
backwards  and  forwards  between  the  pen  and  the  feeding 
place. 

It  is  better  to  keep  not  more  than  five  or  six  sows  in  a  pen 
of  this  kind,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  provide  plenty  of 
trough  room.  The  troughs  should  be  placed  on  dry  ground  or 
on  a  platform,  and  it  is  preferable  to  have  them  in  a  place  that 
is  sheltered  from  the  wnnd. 

Feeding  and  Management  during  Gestation. — During  the 
period  of  gestation  the  sow  should  be  kept  in  good,  strong 
condition,  but  not  overloaded  with  fat.  Extremes  in  condition 
are  to  be  avoided.  The  very  fat  sow  is  apt  to  be  clumsy  with 
her  pigs,  and  sometimes  her  pigs  are  few  in  number  or  lacking 
in  vitality.  On  the  other  hand,  the  very  thin  sow  will  either 
not  do  justice  to  her  pigs,  or  will  become  a  mere  wreck  herself 
during  the  time  she  is  nursing  her  litter,  and  the  chances  are 
that  both  these  things  will  happen.  A  sow  may  be  kept  in 
fairly  liig-h  condition  and  still  produce  satisfactory  litters, 
provided  she  takes  plenty  of  exercise.  (Fig.  51.) 

Her  Ration. — In  districts  where  corn  is  plentiful,  there  is 
a  temptation  to  feed  sows  almost  exclusively  upon  corn.  Such 
a  method  of  feeding  cannot  give  the  best  results,  because  corn 
does  not  funiish  enough  bone-  and  muscle-fonning  constituents 
to  properly  develop  the  unborn  ]dgs.  It  is  also  rather  too 
fattening  and  heating  to  feed  in  large  quantities  to  a  sow^  at 
this  stage.  It  is  true  that  corn  may  be  fed,  but,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  boar,  it  must  be  fed  wath  judgment.  The  ration  recom- 
mended for  the  lx)ar — namely,  equal  parts  ground  com,  ground 
oats,  and  wheat  middlings — will  answer  very  nicely  for  the 
sow.     The  proportion  of  com  should  not  be  over  one-third  of 


230 


FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


the  meal  ration,  and  wheal  iniildlinjjs  or  hran  may  be  used  to 
dilute  the  corn  meal  without  oats.  In  cold  weather,  if  sows 
have  a  good  deal  of  out-door  exercise,  they  may  he  fed  more 
com  with  safety  than  when  they  have  to  be  kept  pretty  closely 
confined. 

A  meal  ration  which  is  preferred  by  the  writer  to  all  others 
is   equal    ]iart>;   jn*ound   oats    and    niiddlincT'^,    loavinc:  out   corn 


!i[^^>'^j'l '    11  ^^^^^^^B 

"IT  ^^H 

ViJ 

1m  mm^^ 

KiQ.  51. — Thrcf-yt'iir-okl  C'licster  white  sow,  winner  of  numerous  prizes. 

altoiictiuT.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  use  a  wide  variety  of 
feeds,  so  long  as  the  feeder  realizes  the  importance  of  furnish- 
ing considerable  bulk  and  of  restricting  the  ju-oportion  of 
heating  or  highly  fattening  feeds. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  boar,  the  sow  requires  something 
besides  meal,  and  the  furnishing  of  some  such  feeds  as  roots, 
or  alfalfa  or  red  clover  hay,  is  even  more  important  than  in 


THE  SOW  231 

feeding  the  boar.  Skim-milk  is  also  excellent,  but  is  not  always 
available  for  sows. 

//(  summer,  a  pasture  field  will  furnish  the  bulky  part  of 
the  ration,  and,  if  sows  are  in  good  condition  to  start  with  and 
are  given  a  good  pasture,  they  will  get  along  very  well  without 
other  feed  for  two  or  three  months.  They  should  be  given  a 
little  meal  for  several  weeks  before  farrowing,  to  accustom  them 
to  its  use,  and  render  the  change  less  violent  when  they  are 
taken  into  the  pens.  With  regard  to  the  quantity  of  meal,  the 
feeder  must  be  guided  entirely  by  the  condition  of  the  sows. 

^[eal  may  be  fed  either  wet  or  dry.  When  roots  are  fed, 
a  good  plan  is  to  mix  the  dry  meal  with  pulped  roots,  though 
the  feeder  has  wide  latitude  in  regard  to  tlie  methods  he  may 
see  fit  to  follow. 

In  cold  weather,  when  'sows  are  fed  out-doors,  very  little 
water  should  be  used  in  mixing  their  feed.  It  will  be  found 
better  to  furnish  them  with  water  separately,  should  they 
require  it.  If  they  are  fed  roots,  they  will  take  verj'  little 
water  in  cold  weather.  It  should  be  seen  to,  however,  that 
they  have  water  when  they  need  it,  and  in  hot  weather  an 
abundant  supply  of  fresh  water  is  very  important. 

A  record  shoidd  he  kept  of  the  date  of  service  of  each  sow, 
so  that  the  date  of  farrowing  will  l)e  known  in  advance,  and 
due  precaution  taken.  A  week  or  two  before  farrowing,  the  sow 
should  be  placed  in  the  farrowing  pen,  so  as  to  become 
accustomed  to  her  surroundings  and  changed  conditions  before 
the  pigs  are  bom. 

Constipation  is  the  bano  of  the  swine  breeder,  and  if  the 
sow  becomes  constipated  before  she  farrows,  the  chances  are 
that  she  will  lose  her  pigs,  and  possibly  her  o^vn  life.  Con- 
stipation, therefore,  is  one  of  the  main  things  to  be  guarded 
against  at  this  time.  ^Mien  it  once  occurs,  very  little  can  be 
done  to  overcome  it  and  save  the  pigs,  so  that  it  is  almost 


232  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

altogether  a  matter  of  ])rcv('iitii>ii.  If  a  sow  is  taken  directly 
from  a  pasture  tield,  shut  up  in  a  ])en,  and  fed  u])on  an 
exclusive  meal  ration,  trouble  is  almost  sure  to  occur.  Radical 
changes  in  feeding  are  to  be  avoided,  ami  the  ration  should  be 
kept  practically  the  same  after  takina;  the  sow  into  the  pen  as 
it  was  before.  If  anything,  the  feed  should  be  made  rather 
more  sloppy,  and  green  feed  or  roots  should  be  supplied  the 
same  as  they  were  Ix^fore  the  sow  was  taken  in.  A  small  amount 
of  linseed  meal  (oil  meal)  or  ir;rouii(l  thixsccd  added  to  the 
ration  is  also  helpful  in  preventing  constipation.  The  wisdom 
of  feeding  meal  to  sows  while  on  pasture  for  a  time  before 
they  farrow  can  be  readily  a])preeiated,  as  it  prevents  a  violent 
change  in  their  ration.  The  sow  should  also  ])e  given  a  chance 
and  encouraged  to  take  exercise. 

Farrowing. — The  farrowing  pen  should  Ix?  dry,  well  ven- 
tilated, and  free  from  draughts.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  provide 
the  pen  with  a  guard  rail  made  of  two  by  eight  inch  planks 
fastened  with  their  edges  against  the  sides  of  the  ]>eii  a  little 
above  the  bed.  These  prevent  the  sow  from  lying  against  the 
partition,  and  lessen  the  danger  of  injury  to  the  little  pigs, 
which  often  find  the  space  under  the  guard  a  very  convenient 
refuge.  (Fig.  52.) 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  amount  of  Ix^dding 
which  'should  be  us(>(l,  some  maintaining  that  the  sow  should 
1)0  liberally  supplied  with  iH'dding,  and  others  that  the  Ixxiding 
shouM  he  limited.  The  writer's  (experience  is  that  active  sows  in 
comparatively  light  condition  can  generally  be  trusted  with  a 
lil)eral  amount  of  Ix'dding.  but  sows  which  are  in  high  con- 
dition, or  which  are  at  all  clmnsy,  had  l>etter  be  given  only  a 
moderate  amount  of  cut  straw. 

Sows  sJHtuld  not  be  allowed  to  farrow  in  a  large  piggerv 
wliere  many  other  ])igs  are  kejit.  unless  it  is  warm  weather  and 
windows  and  doors  can  be  left  open.     The  air  of  a  piggery 


THE  SOW 


233 


where  many  pigs  are  kept  seems  to  be  poisonous  to  little  pigs, 
when  tiie  weather  is  cold  and  the  doors  and  windows  have  to 
be  closed,  in  spite  of  ordinarily  good  methods  of  ventilation. 
The  writer  has  had  good  results  from  sows  farrowing  in 
portable  single  pens  placed  in  a  sheltered  yard,  even  in  zero 
weather.  Tarred  paper  was  put  on  the  studding,  and  the  pen 
tightly  Ixiarded  outside  and  inside.  A  ceiling  of  slats  was  put 
in  the  pen,  and  the  space  above  the  ceiling  stuffed  with  straw. 


Fio.  52. — Method  of  fastening  guard  rail  to  wall  or  partition.    A,  guard  rail,  2"x8";  B, 
three-cornered  pieces  of  two-inch  phink  spiked,  at  intervals,  to  guard  rail  and  wall. 

A  window  in  the  side,  a  small  ventilator  running  from  the 
ceiling  out  through  the  roof,  and  a  lighted  lantern  hung  in  the 
pen  on  the  coldest  days  when  the  pigs  were  very  small,  com- 
pleted the  equipment.  The  air  in  this  pen  always  felt  dry 
and  comfortable,  and  the  pigs  all  kept  healthy  and  thrifty. 
If  the  ventilating  shaft  runs  up  from  near  the  floor,  it  will  be 
better. 

It  pays  to  treat  sows  kindly  and  to  have  them  quiet.     If 
thev  are  on  ffood  term>j  with  the  attendant  and  reernrd  him  as 


234  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

a  friend,  there  is  much  less  danger  of  tron])l('  from  ner\'ous, 
excited  sows  when  the  eriticnl  time  of  farrow iiiir  arrives. 

Feeding  and  Management  after  Farrowing. — After  farrow- 
ing, the  sow  shouhl  not  he  di.sturhcd,  and  if  she  lies  quietly  for 
ten  or  twelve  hours,  or  even  more,  so  much  the  better.  When 
she  wants  anything,  she  will  come  to  the  trongli  for  it.  At 
first  she  should  have  little  more  than  a  drink.  A  very  thin 
slop  of  middlings  and  water  will  answer  very  avoII.  If  the 
weather  is  cold,  tepid  water  should  be  used.  During  the  tirst 
three  days,  great  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  over  feed,  and 
the  ration  'should  be  kept  very  light.  After  this,  tlio  feed 
may  be  gradually  increased,  taking  a  week  or  ten  (hiys  to  reach 
full  feed.  A  good  molher  with  a  large  litter  reijuires  very 
liberal  feeding,  l)ut  if  the  litter  is  small,  it  nuiy  be  necessary  to 
reduce  the  feed. 

Many  different  rations  are  used  for  nursing  sows.  Equal 
parts  of  finely  ground  oats  and  wheat  middlings,  allowed  to  soak 
Ix-tween  feeds,  makes  a  most  excellent  ration.  If  sweet  skini- 
niilk  can  ])o  added  to  the  mixture,  it  makes  an  almost  ideal 
ration.  Com  may  be  used  as  recommended  for  sows  before 
farrowing,  and  in  larger  quantities  if  skim-milk  is  available. 
A  certain  amount  of  roots  and  gi'een  feed  are  always  in  order, 
but  the  sow  shoidd  not  be  expected  to  snl)sist  upon  such  feeds 
at  this  time.  A  limited  amount  of  bulky,  succulent  feed  helps 
to  keep  the  sow  healthy. 

TJtr  sow's  udder  nuiy  become  hard  and  iiithiined.  If  so, 
it  is  a  good  ]»lan  to  hathe  thoroughly  with  hot  water  and  a]>ply 
equal  parts  of  lai-d  and  tni-]teiit  inc. 

]Vhe)i  the  pi</s  are  ireaiied.  the  fc^ed  should  ho  cut  down  to 
check  the  secretion  of  milk.  Dry  oats  make  a  safe  feed  for 
the  sow  for  a  few  days  after  tlu^  jdgs  nro  weaned.  If  the 
udder  gets  vers'  full,  it  is  a  good  ])lan  to  turn  the  sow  in  Avith 
the  pigs  once  a  day  for  a  few  days. 


•     THE  SOW  235 

Sows  which  Eat  their  Pigs. — Occasionally  a  sow  will  be 
found  which  will  eat  her  pigs.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  the 
tendency  to  oat  their  young  is  sometimes  caused  by  allowing 
sows  to  eat  the  afterbirth.  As  a  precautionary  measure,  the 
afterbirtli  should  be  prom])tly  removed  from  the  pen.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  the  trouble  is  generally  caused  by  a  fevered 
condition  in  the  sow,  often  induced  by  injudicious  feeding  be- 
fore farrowing,  or  even  after  farrowing.  A  remedy  that  has 
been  suggested  is  to  feed  the  sow  salt  pork,  but  the  danger  is 
that  once  the  sow  has  eaten  her  pigs  she  acquires  the  habit  and 
is  likely  to  do  it  again.  Unless  she  is  a  very  valuable  sow,  it 
is  safer  not  to  give  her  a  second  opportunity,  but  to  turn  her 
into  the  feed  lot  and  fatten  her  for  the  butcher. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What   is  the  advice  as  to  age  for  the   first  breeding  of  sows? 

2.  \Miat  is  the  eti'ect  of  breeding  again  too  soon  after  farrowing? 

3.  What  sliould  her  condition  be  when  bred? 

4.  Tell  of  the  usual  period  of  gestation  and  the  prol)able  causes  of 
variation. 

5.  When  are  the  best  times  for  farrowing? 

6.  Give  the  reasons  for  one  litter  a  year;   for  two  litters. 

7.  Tell  of  the  importance  of  exercise  for  brood  sows  during  gestation. 
How  given  in  summer? 

8.  Give  methods  of  furnishing  exercise   for  brood  sows   in  winter. 

9.  Describe  tlie  feeding  of  sows  during  gestation:  water  supi)ly  in 
winter  and  summer;   pasture;   roots;  meal  ration. 

10.  What  is  the  value  of  a  breeding  record? 

11.  Tell  of  the  bad  effects  of  constipation  for  brood  sows.  How 
prevented  ? 

12.  Tell  how  to  place  a  guard  rail  in  a  farrowing  pen  and  tell  of  its 
purpose. 

1.3.  Tell  of  the  amount  of  bedding  desirable  at  farrowing  time. 

14.  Tell  of  the  need  of  pure  air  in  the  farrowing  quarters.  How  may 
it  be  provided  without  draughts? 

1.5.  What  are  the  main  points  to  be  observed  in  feeding  the  sow  after 
farrowing  ? 

16.  Give  directions  for  treatment  of  inflamed  udder. 

17.  What  cautions  regarding  feed  of  a  sow  when  the  pigs  are  weaned? 

18.  Give  directions  to  help  prevent  sows  from  eating  their  pigs. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 
THE  YOUNG  PIGS. 

Feeding  and  Management  before  Weaning. — When  the 
pigs  are  burn,  tlie  attendant  should  be  on  hand  h>  see  that 
everything  goes  well.  If  the  pigs  are  strong  and  the  sow  lies 
(juiet,  it  is  l)etter  not  to  interfere.  Sows  that  have  l)een  properly- 
fed  and  given  sutlicicnt  exercise  "seldom  have  difhenltv  in 
farrowing. 

If  the  i)igs  seem  somewhat  weak,  or  if  the  sow  is  very 
restless,  it  is  safer  to  place  the  pigs  in  a  well-bedded  box  or 
basket  to  keep  them  out  of  tlie  way  until  all  are  born.  If  the 
|ien  is  chilly,  a  bottle  of  hot  water  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
basket  and  covered  with  a  blanket,  with  another  blanket  over 
the  top  of  the  basket,  will  helj)  keep  up  the  vitality  of  the  pigs. 

The  pigs  should  be  placed  to  tbe  teat  t-o  suck  as  soon  as 
possible.  The  weaker  the  pigs,  or  the  colder  the  pen,  the  more 
important  an  early  drink  of  the  mother's  milk  becomes.  If 
parturition  is  not  unduly  protracted,  and  if  the  pigs  are  strong, 
lively,  and  comfoi'table,  they  may  wait  for  their  first  drink 
until  all  are  born,  but  in  <\u-]\  matters  the  attendant  must  use 
his  judgment. 

Tn  cases  of  difficult  parturition,  a  ])ig  that  is  ap]iarently 
lifeless  can  often  be  revived  by  opening  its  mouth  and  blowing 
into  it.  To  be  successful,  this  o]ieration  must  be  jierformed 
as  soon  as  it  is  born.  A  chilled  pig  can  sometimes  be  revived 
bv  immersing  up  to  the  neck  in  water  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  about  OS  degrees,  ^^^len  removed  from  the  water,  it  should 
be  rubl)ed  dry.  and  induced  to  suck  if  possible. 

As  soon  as  the  sow  appears  t-o  have  settled  down  quietly, 

(236) 


THE  YOUNG  PIGS  237 

it  is  best  to  j)ut  the  little  pig's  with  her  and  leave  them  together. 
It  is  well  not  to  interfere  exeej)t  when  it  is  absolutely  necessary. 

Learning  (o  Eat. — l>y  the  time  the  pigs  are  about  three 
weeks  old  they  will  have  learned  to  eat.  If  at  all  possible,  it  is 
a  good  i)lan  t<»  give  them  access  to  another  pen  in  which  is 
kept  a  small  trough.  Here  they  can  be  fed  a  little  skim-milk 
with  a  very  little  middlings  stirred  into  it.  The  quantity  of 
middlings  ean  be  increas(Ml  gradually  as  the  ])igs  grow  older. 
If  tliey  can  be  taught  to  nibble  at  sugar-beets  or  mangels  during 
this  time,  so  much  the  better.  A  small  amount  of  soaked  whole 
com,  or  almost  any  other  grain,  scattered  on  the  floor  of  the 
pen,  will  cause  them  to  take  exercise  while  hunting  for  it.  If 
it  is  not  p<3ssible  to  ju'ovide  an  extra  ^K'n,  the  sow  may  be 
shut  out  of  the  pen  while  the  pigs  are  being  fed.  IMany  people 
simply  allow  the  young  pigs  to  eat  with  the  sow,  and  many 
good  pigs  are  raised  in  this  way,  but  better  results  will  be 
obtained  if  the  pigs  can  be  fed  separately. 

Exercise  is  very  important  for  young  pigs,  and  every  pos- 
sible means  of  securing  it  must  be  adopted.  If  they  are  kept  in 
a  small  pen  with  the  mother,  some  of  the  best  of  them  will 
likely  become  too  fat,  and  will  probably  sicken  and  die.  Out- 
door exercise  is  especially  beneficial,  but  the  pigs  should  be 
protected  from  cold  winds  or  from  a  very  hot  sun.  If  the  sow 
is  turned  out  with  her  pigs,  it  is  not  well  to  give  a"  very  largo 
range  at  first.  She  is  likely  to  travel  too  far  and  unduly  tire  them. 

Boar  pigs  not  intended  for  breeding  purposes  should  be 
castrated  before  weaning,  to  get  the  best  results,  though  there 
is  not  much  danger  from  castrating  at  a  later  date,  provided 
care  is  exercised  in  connection  with  the  operation.  Clean 
hands,  a  clean  knife,  and  the  use  of  a  disinfectant  upon  the 
wound  will  obviate  practically  all  danger. 

Pigs  ruptured  in  the  scrotum  may  be  easily  castrated  as 
follows :  Have  an  assistant  hold  the  pig  up  by  the  hind  legs.  In 
making  the  incision,  cut  only  through  the  skiu  of  the  scrotum, 


238  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

being  careful  not  to  cut  the  membrane  or  sac  which  envelops 
the  testicle.  Then  draw  out  the  testicle  enclosed  in  its  membrane, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  work  the  intestine  back  into  the  body  of 
the  pig.  With  the  pig  held  as  described,  the  intestine  will  go  back 
to  its  place  with  little  or  no  assistance.  Having  drawn  out  the 
testicle  far  enough,  tie  a  strong  white  string  firmly  around  the 
cord  of  the  testicle  (including  the  membrane)  and  then  cut  away 
the  testicle  (enclosed  in  its  membrane)  just  outside  of  where  the 
string  is  tied.  Leave  the  ends  of  the  string  three  or  four  inches 
long,  so  that  they  hang  outside  the  wound.  If  the  string  does 
not  come  away  in  a  couple  of  weeks,  it  may  be  pulled  out. 

If  the  rupture  is  only  on  one  side,  the  remaining  testicle  may 
be  removed  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  scrotum  should  be  washed 
with  disinfectant  before  any  incision  is  made.  The  hands  of 
the  operator  and  the  knife  should  also  be  washed  with  disin- 
fectant, and  the  string  should  be  soaked  in  disinfectant  before  it 
is  used.  The  incision  in  the  scrotum  should  extend  well  down- 
wards to  facilitate  drainage  from  the  wound.  These  simple 
precautions  assure  success. 

The  writer  has  employed  this  method  successfully,  and  when 
the  wound  heals  no  person  could  tell  that  the  pig  had  been 
ruptured. 

Feeding  and  Management  after  Weaning — There  is  con- 
siderable difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  age  at  which  to 
wean  pigs.  Some  advocate  leaving  the  pigs  with  the  sow  for 
.ten  or  twelve  weeks, — in  fact,  the  sow  is  allowed  practically 
to  wean  her  o\vn  pigs.  For  producing  show  pigs  this  method 
may  answer  very  well,  but  it  means  only  one  litter  a  year;  at 
any  rate,  it  does  not  admit  of  two  litters  a  yrar.  The  average 
farmer  will  find  it  more  profitable  to  wean  his  pigs  early 
enough  to  permit  two  litters  a  year  to  be  raised.  If  the  young 
pigs  have  been  taught  to  eat  as  described,  and  skim-milk  is 
available,  they  may  be  weaned  successfully  when  six  weeks  old. 
It  is  true  that  many  pigs  are  weaned  before  they  are  six  weeks 
old.    It  is  seldom  advisable  to  do  so  if  they  appear  to  be  thriving 


THE  YOUNG  PIGS 


239 


with  the  sow.  If  skim-milk  is  not  available,  it  is  generally 
advisable  to  defer  weaning  for  two  weeks  more,  and  special 
pains  should  be  taken  to  have  the  pigs  well  accustomed  to  their 
new  feed  and  eating  heartily  before  they  are  weaned. 

Skim-milk  and  middlincjs  make  about  the  best  feed  for 
young  pigs  after  weaning.  If  the  middlings  are  fine  and 
floury,  which  is  not  very  likely  to  occur  under  present-day 
methods  of  milling,  they  will  sometimes  cause  indigestion, 
which  may  show  itself  either  in  the  form  of  diarrhoea  or  con- 
stipation.    Diluting  the  middlings  with  a  little  bran  or  finely 


Fio.  ry.i. — tiroup  of  Yorkshire  b:icon  pigs. 

ground  oats  will  help  prevent  the  trouble.  Soaking  or  scalding 
the  middlings  will  also  tend  to  prevent  digestive  troubles.  Scald- 
ing the  middlings  is  especially  useful  when  no  skim-milk  is  to  be 
had,  as  it  makes  the  pigs  like  the  feed  better.  To  scald  the 
middlings,  it  is  best  to  pour  boiling  water  on  them,  cover  the 
vessel,  and  allow  to  stand  several  hours,  or  from  one  time  of 
feeding  until  the  next,  ^^^len  the  pigs  are  first  weaned,  it  is 
better  to  feed  four  times  a  day,  giving  only  a  small  quantity  of 
feed  each  time,  and  taking  care  to  keep  the  trough  clean.  "Wlien 
well  started,  they  may  be  changed  to  three  feeds  a  day. 

Other  Feeds. — It  is  not  well  to  be  in  a  hurry  to  commence 
feeding  corn,  but  if  skim-milk  is  fed,  corn  feeding  may  com- 
mence earlier  than  when  no  skim-milk  is  avaihible.     Generallv 


240  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

speaking,  when  pigs  are  about  three  months  old  a  little  corn  or 
other  grain  may  be  introduced  into  their  ration.  Two  parts  of 
middlings  and  one  part  of  corn  meal  or  ground  barley,  mixed 
with  skim-milk  to  form  a  slop,  make  an  excellent  ration  for 
growing  pigs.  As  the  pigs  grow  older  the  proportion  of  grain 
to  middlings  may  be  increased,  but  at  no  time  should  they  be 
fed  exclusively  or  almost  exclusively  upon  corn,  because  corn  is 
a  poor  bone-  and  muscle-former.  The  importance  of  feeding 
supplementary  feeds  with  corn  has  been  pretty  fully  discussed 
under  the  work  of  experiment  stations.  The  need  of  such  feeds 
is  most  important  during  the  early  life.  A  few  roots  will  be 
found  most  helpful  in  keeping  young  pigs  healthy  during  the 
winter,  and  green  feed  of  almost  any  kind  will  answer  the 
purpose  during  the  summer.  The  feeder  has  a  wide  range  of 
feeds  to  choose  from,  and  if  he  understands  something  of  their 
nature,  has  no  difficulty  in  compounding  a  satisfactory  ration. 

The  aim  should  be  to  develop  bone  and  muscle  diiring  the 
early  stages  of  growth,  and,  while  the  pigs  should  be  thrifty 
and  sleek  in  the  hair,  they  should  not  be  fed  in  such  a  way  as  to 
overload  them  with  fat,  (Fig.  53.)  This  is  especially  true 
of  pigs  which  are  intended  for  breeding  purposes,  and  which 
should  Ix'  carrii^l  right  throngli  to  breeding  age  upon  ioeds 
which  stimulate  growth  and  general  vigor  rather  than  fat.  A 
reasonable  amount  of  fat  is  not  objectionable,  but  the  develop- 
ment of  the  frame,  the  niiisciilar  system,  and  the  vital  organs 
must  not  be  neglected,  if  a  satisfactory  breeding  animal  is  to 
be  produced.  \'ariety  in  feeds  and  plenty  of  exercise  aix'  very 
essential  features  in  raising  an  animal  that  will  possess  all- 
round  development. 

Cost  of  Raising  Pigs. — The  Ontario  Agricultural  College 
obtained  some  interesting  figures  relative  to  the  cost  of  raising 
young  pigs  until  six  weeks  old,  at  which  age  they  are  commonly 
weaned. 

Feeds  were  valued  as  follows:   Meal  of  all  kinds,  including 


THE  YOUNG  PIGS 


24\ 


bran  aiul  middlings,  $20.00  per  ton;  roots,  $2.00  per  ton; 
skim-niilk,  ir>  cents  per  100  pomuls. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  sow  raises  two  litters  a  year,  and  that 
she  nurses  each  litter  six  weeks.  This  would  leave  about  nine 
and  one-quarter  months  during  the  year  that  the  sow  would  not 
Ik?  nursing  pigs,  and  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  sow  during 
the  time  she  is  dry  is  estimated  at  75  cents  per  montli,  it  being 
assumed  that  the  sow  is  fed  as  economically  as  possible  during 
this  time.  The  maintenance  during  the  nine  and  one-quarter 
months  at  75  cents  per  month  amounts  to  $6.94,  or,  in  round 
numbers,  $7.00,  Half  of  this  amount,  or  $3.50,  is  charged 
against  each  litter,  in  addition  to  the  cost  of  feed  consumed  by 
the  sow  and  pigs  before  the  pigs  are  weaned.  Risk,  interest  on 
investment,  labor,  and  manure  are  left  out  of  the  calculation. 
Twelve  litters  of  pigs  were  used,  which  were  weaned  at  six  weeks 
old  in  each  case. 

The  following  table  gives  particulars  of  each  litter: 


Sow  and 
litter. 

No.  of  pigs 
in  litter. 

How  bred. 

Cost  of  feeding 
sow  and  litter 
for    six    weeks. 

No.     1 

4 
9 
6 
5 

8 
3 
9 
8 
8 
8 
6 
4 

Pure  Yorkshire 

$3.20 

"     2 

"     3. 

Berkshire  sire,  Tamworth  dam 

Pure  Yorkshire 

3.08 
3.87 

"     4 

"     5 

"     6 

"     7 

"     8 

Yorkshire  sire,  Tamworth  dam 

Yorkshire  sire,  Tamworth  dam 

Yorkshire  sire,  Berkshire  dam 

Berkshire  sire,  Yorkshire  dam 

Pure  Yorkshire 

3.70 
3.04 
5.85 
4.31 
4.33 

"     9 

Pure  Tamworth 

3.88 

"   10 

"    11 

"    12 

Yorkshire  sire,  Tamworth  dam 

Tamworth  sire,  Berkshire  dam 

Tamworth  sire,  Berkshire  dam 

3.94 
3.33 
2.37 

Average.  . 

6H 

3.74 

2'otal  and  A  verage  Costs. — To  arrive  at  the  total  cost  of  the 
pigs  at  six  weeks  old,  the  service  fee  and  half  the  cost  of  main- 
taining the  sow  when  dry  are  charged  against  the  average  cost 
of  maintaining  the  sow  and  litter  for  six  weeks,  making  the  total 
cost  as  follows : 
16 


242  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Service    fee    $1 .00 

Half  cost  of  maintaining  dry  sow   ( J/^  of  $7.00) 3..")0 

Average  cost  of  feed  for  sow  and  litter 3.74 

Total   $8.24 

Average  number  of  pigs  in  litter,  G^. 
Average  cost  per  pig  six  weeks  old,  $1.27. 

Variations  in  Cost. — If  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  dry 
sow  were  phiecd  at  $1.00  per  month,  it  would  bring  the  cost 
of  the  young  pigs  to  $1.44  each  at  six  weeks  old.  It  is  probably 
a  safe  statement,  therefore,  that  young  pigs  can  be  raised  to 
the  age  of  six  weeks  at  $1.50  each,  making  some  allowance 
for  items  not  considered  in  the  experiment  described. 

J.  H.  Grisdale,  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Canada, 
estimates  that  a  breeding  sow  can  be  maintained  during  a 
whole  year  at  from  $12.00  to  $15.00,  under  careful  manage- 
ment, and  produce  two  litters  during  the  year.  This  ap- 
proximates, very  closely,  the  Ontario  results,  wliich,  omitting 
service  fee,  make  the  cost  of  maintaining  a  sow  lialf  a  year, 
and  one  litter  of  pigs  for  six  weeks,  $7.24. 

Since  the  above  calculations  were  made,  there  has  hoen  a 
very  material  increase  in  the  cost  of  feeds,  but  if  we  add 
50  per  cent  to  the  cost  of  maintenance,  all  round,  the  cost  of  a 
pig  six  weeks  old  is  about  $1.S5,  which  is  a  very  moderate  cost. 

RKVIKW. 

1.  Give  a  plan  of  keeping  new-horn  pigs  warm  in  very  cold  weather. 

2.  Tell  of  the  importance  of  the  first  milk  soon  after  farrowing. 

3.  Tell  of  tlie  management  of  apparently  lifeless  pigs  wlion  first  born. 

4.  Hive  plans  for  teacliing  sucklings  to  eat. 

5.  TIow  may  young  pigs  be   induced  to  exercise? 

fi.  When  is  the  best  time  to  wean  pigs?     fJive  reasons  for  variation. 

7.  Give  suggestions  regarding  best  feeds  after  weaning.  W]\y  avoid 
giving  corn  only? 

S.  What  is  the  cost  given  for  pigs  six  weeks  old?  TTow  is  it 
calculated? 

9.  What  variation  in  these  figures  would  be  necessary  for  the  present 
prices  of  feed? 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
FATTENING. 

Many  of  the  problems  connected  with  the  fattening  cf 
hogs  have  already  been  discussed  under  experiment  station 
work.  Corn  may  be  used  much  more  freely  for  fattening  hogs 
than  for  those  intended  for  breeding,  but  experiments  show 
conclusively  that  com  has  its  limitations,  even  for  fattening. 
and  that  it  is  greatly  improved  by  having  some  feed  richer  in 
protein  combined  with  it.  The  importance  of  using  some 
sort  of  supplementan-  feed  with  almost  any  meal  ration  in  order 
to  give  bulk  and  variety  has  also  been  demonstrated,  and  the 
important  place  which  pasture  may  play  in  the  fattening  of 
hogs  has  been  quite  fully  dealt  with.  There  are  a  few  general 
facts  of  more  or  less  importance  remaining  to  be  given  under 
this  heading. 

Winter  Feeding. — Generally  speaking,  winter  feeding  is 
more  expensive  than  summer  feeding.  Part  of  the  extra  feed 
required  in  winter  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  more  feed 
is  required  to  keep  up  the  heat  of  the  body  during  cold  weatlier. 
There  is  little  doubt,  however,  that  much  of  the  advantage  of 
summer  feeding  is  due  to  more  sanitary  surroundings, — that  is, 
more  fresh  air  and  out-door  exercise,  coupled  with  more  suc- 
culent feed,  which  seems  to  aid  digestion.  The  man  who  feeds 
hogs  in  winter,  therefore,  should  aim  to  approach  summer  con- 
ditions as  nearly  as  possible.  He  cannot  get  summer  tem- 
perature, it  is  true,  but  he  can  provide  a  fair  amount  of  fresh 
air,  and  feeds  that  will  keep  the  digestive  organs  in  good 
condition.     It  is  just  here  that  the  man  who  grows  a  few  roots 

(243) 


244  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

for  winter  foodino:  lias  a  <»:roat  advantoj^o  over  the  man  who 
does  not.  Skini-niilk,  Inittennilk,  and  alfalfa  hav  may  also  l)e 
made  to  perfonn  a  useful  part  in  giving  variety  and  aiding  the 
digestive  organs  to  perform  their  functions  properly. 

Quantity  of  Feed. — The  test  of  the  skill  of  the  feeder  is 
his  ability  to  keej)  just  slightly  within  the  appetite  of  the 
animals  under  his  charge,  lie  must  watch  the  animals  closely 
and  see  that  they  clean  up  witli  ajiparent  relish  all  that  he 
gives  them.  Feed  left  in  the  trough  is  a  sign  that  something 
is  wrong  with  the  methods  employed,  and  to  have  to  cut  hack  in 
the  quantity  of  feed  means  a  loss  of  time.  The  ([uantity  should 
be  so  gauged  that  there  is  a  gradual  increase  as  fattening 
advances,  and  radical  changes,  either  in  (piantity  oi-  kind, 
should  be  avoided.  To  1h'  successfid,  the  feeder  must  learn 
the  lesson  that  all  changes  should  be  made  gradually,  and  that 
undue  haste  in  fattening  may  mean  serious  delay  in  the  process, 
together  with  a  waste  of  feed. 

Regularity  and  Comfort. — Eegidarity  in  time  of  feeding 
is  n<  cessary  to  regularity  in  the  appetite  of  the  animal.  The 
animal  which  is  fed  at  the  same  hours  overs'  day  will  take  more 
feed  with  less  danger  of  surfeiting  than  the  one  fed  at  anv  time 
to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  feeder. 

Dry,  comfortable  quarters,  and  sanitary  conditions  generally 
in  pen  or  feed  lot,  are  important  factors  in  securing  satisfactorv 
gains,  and  in  avoiding  disastrous  loss  through  disease. 

Cost  Increases  with  Age. — VnA'.  Henry,  in  ''Feeds  and 
Feeding,"  gives  a  very  instructive  table,  comjiiled  from  results 
from  numerous  exj)eriment  stations,  showing  the  feed  con- 
sumed per  100  pounds  gain  by  hogs  of  diflFerent  weights.  Fol- 
lowing is  an  abbreviation  of  the  table  as  given  in  Prof.  Henry's 
book: 


FATTENING 


245 


Weight  of  animals 
in  pounds 

Total 

number 

of  animals 

fed. 

Average 

feed  eaten 

per  day 

Feed  eaten 

dailv  per 

100  lbs. 

live  weight. 

Average 

gain 
per  day. 

Feed  for 

100  pounds 

gain. 

15  to  50 

50  to  100 

100  to  150 

150  to  200 

200  to  250 

250  to  300 

300  to  350 

174 
417 
495 
489 
300 
223 
105 

lbs. 
2.23 
3.35 
4.79 
5.91 
6.57 
7.40 
7.50 

lbs. 
5.95 
4.32 
3.75 
3.43 
2.91 
2.74 
2.35 

lbs. 
.76 

.83 
1.10 
1.24 
1.33 
1.46 
1.40 

lbs. 
293 

400 
437 
482 
498 
511 
535 

The  table  shows  that  the  heavier  hogs  made  more  raj)id 
gains  and  consumed  less  feed  per  100  pounds  of  their  live 
weight,  but  there  was  a  steady  increase  in  the  ainoniit  of  fwd 
required  for  100  pounds  gain  as  fattening  advanced.  (See 
Fig.  54.) 

A  similar  result  was  obtained  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College  ^^^th  36  pure-bred  pigs  of  different  breeds,  as  shown  bv 
the  following  table: 


Live  weight  of  hogs. 

Meal  required  for  100  pounds 
increase    in    weight. 

54  to  82  pounds 

310  pounds 
375  pound? 
438  pounds 
455  pounds 

82  to  1 15  pound." ; 

1 15  to  1 48  pounds 

148  to  170  pounds 

These,  figures,  together  with  others  that  might  be  given, 
show  very  clearly  that  the  cost  of  production  steadily  increa.ses 
as  the  hogs  l>ec<3me  older. 

Correctives. — Swine  appear  to  have  a  craving  for  what 
might  be  called  "  unnatural  "  substances.  This  is  especially 
true  of  hogs  which  are  kept  in  confinement,  which  will  eat 
greedily  such  substances  as  charcoal,  ashes,  mortar,  soft  coal, 
and  rotten  wood.     It  is  probable  that  some  of  these  substances 


246 


FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


are  not  good  for  hogs,  Ijut  there  is  no  don]>t  that  charcoal  and 
wood  ashes  have  a  beneticial  effect.  Charcoal  made  from  corn- 
cobs answers  very  well.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  supply  hogs 
udth  charcoal,  especially  during  the  winter  months,  but,  if  the 
hogs  have  not  had  any  charcoal  for  a  considerable  time  and 
are  then  given  a  liberal  supply,  there  is  danger  that  they  may 


Fia.  54.  —  YcarlinK  Dti roc-Jersey  now,  a  fu-qui-nl  prizc-vMuiitT. 


take  too  niiu'h  i'>>\-  their  own  good.  The  same  caution  must 
be  observed  in  regard  to  salt. 

If  charcoal  is  not  available,  a  very  good  mixture,  to  keep 
constantly  before  hogs  in  small  troughs  made  for  the  pui'pose, 
can  ho  made  up  of  one  part  salt,  one  part  sulphur,  and  about 
ten  parts  M'ood  ashes. 

Sods  make  a  very  fair  substitute  for  (•liarc(\al,     A  wagon- 


FATTENING  247 

load  or  two  of  sods  placed  conveniently  near  the  piggery  so  that 
the  feeder  can  throw  one  or  two  into  each  pen  occasionally  will 
be  found  very  beneficial  during  the  winter. 

ir(ig.-^  that  are  out-doors  during  the  summer  and  have  access 
to  eartli  and  vegetable  matter  have  little  need  of  other 
correctives. 

Money  Returns  for  Feed  Consumed  by  Hogs. — Some  in- 
teresting figures  have  been  published  by  the  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College  relating  to  the  value  it  is  possible  to  obtain  for 
feed  consumed  by  boos,  when  the  hogs  are  sold  at  varying 
prices  per  pound  live  weight.  The  investigation  includes  hogs 
fed  by  the  College,  as  well  as  a  large  numl^er  fed  by  farmers 
throughout  the  province.  The  following  summary  shows  the 
scope  of  the  investigation  : 

Xumber  of  liogs    207 

Weight  when  marketed   56,718      pounds 

Average  weiglit  per  hog   190.0  pounds 

Total  meal  consumed,  which  included  barley,  peas,  oats, 

corn,  middlings,  and  bran    165,011      pounds 

Total  skim-milk  consumed   112.500      pounds 

Total  roots  consumed    64.600      pounds 

Miscellaneous   feeds,   such   as   pasture,   green   feeds,   etc.. 

valued  by  experimenters  at   $77.00 

The  pigs  are  valued  at  $1.50  each  at  weaning  time.  This 
amount,  together  Avith  the  value  of  the  skim-milk  at  20  cents 
per  cwt.,  roots  at  10  cents  per  bu.shel,  and  the  miscellaneous 
feeds  valued  at  $77.00,  is  first  deducted  from  the  gross  proceeds 
derived  from  the  assumed  sale  of  the  hogs  at  eacli  of  thf^ 
different  prices  per  pound,  and  the  remainder  represents  the 
cash  received  for  the  meal  consumed  by  the  hoos.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  prices  obtained  for  feed,  under  each 
valuation  of  the  hogs  when  sold ; 


248  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Pnces  Realized  for  Feeds  Consumed  by  297  Hogs. 


Assamed  selling  prices  of  hogs,  live 
weight. 

Meal,  including 
mixed  grain,  mid- 
dlings, and  bran. 

Milk. 

Roots. 

If  sold  at  43^  cents  per  lb 

per  ton 

$20.45 
$23.87 
$27.29 
$30.71 
$34.13 

per  rwt. 
$.20 
$.20 
$.20 
$.20 
$.20 

per  bu. 
$  10 

If  sold  at  5  cents  per  lb 

$  10 

If  sold  at  53^  cents  per  lb 

$.10 

If  sol<l  at  6  cents  per  lb 

$.10 

If  sold  at  63^  cents  per  lb 

$.10 

Fic^ii'f's  siK'li  as  tlio  above,  obtained  from  a  largo  iiunilxr 
of  hogs  fed  under  varying  conditions,  carry  considerable  weight. 
They  show  that  flic  liog  is  able  to  give  a  good  account  of  the 
feed  he  consumes,  provided  he  is  handled  with  intelligence.  Of 
course,  the  figures  in  the  table  are  averages.  Some  tests  showed 
larger  returns  and  some  did  not  show  as  large,  but  it  is  w^orthy 
of  note  that  two  tests  which  showed  exceptionally  good  results 
were  omitted  from  the  computation  in  order  to  make  the  results 
as  conservative  as  possible. 

PORK  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

Advantages  of  the  South. — [Many  people  think  that  the 
South  is  not  adapted  to  swine  raising,  and  that  the  ''  corn  belt " 
has  something  approaching  a  monopoly  of  the  business.  It  has 
been  demonstrated  very  clearly,  however,  that  corn  alone  is  not 
an  ideal  hog  feed.  (See  Chapter  XX).  The  hog  requires  va- 
riety in  his  feed,  and  pasture  crops  play  an  important  part  in 
cheap  pork  j^roduction.  The  South  produces  a  wonderful  va- 
riety of  feeds,  and  possesses  a  climate  which  permits  of  pasturing 
practically  the  whole  year,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  see  why  the 
South  should  not  excel  along  the  line  of  swine  husbandry. 

Pasture  Crops  for  the  South. — The  ^Mississippi  Station  has 
issued  a  circular  on  "  Growing  Hogs  in  Mississippi  "'  which 
gives  very  full  directions  regarding  pasture  crops  for  that  state. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  recommendatious  may  be  modified  and 


FATTENING  249 

adapted  to  almost  any  part  of  the  South,  they  are  given  here 
practically  in  full.  They  give  a  very  clear  idea  of  the  great  va- 
riety of  crops  which  may  be  employed  to  furnish  pasture  and 
cheapen  production.     The  recommendations  follow: 

■'  We  find  that  the  following  crops  are  applicable  in  Missis- 
sippi and  that  they  arc  such  that  our  labor  can  grow  without 
much  effort.  It  must  be  understood  that  better  crops  and  better 
results  will  follow  planting  on  well  prepared,  well  fertilized,  well 
drained,  and  thoroughly  cultivated  soils.  It  is  best  to  have  good 
soil  for  all  crops,  and  it  is  a  waste  of  time,  energy,  and  money 
to  attempt  to  grow  some  of  the  crops  on  poor  soil.  On  the  other 
hand,  fairly  good  results  will  be  shown  on  poor  lands  if  the  proper 
selection  of  seed  is  made  and  the  soil  is  prepared  properly.  An 
application  of  stable  manure  will  always  pay,  and  provisions 
should  be  made  to  save  and  use  the  same,  whenever  possible. 

"  One  and  one-half  bushels  oats  and  one-half  bushel  vetch 
per  acre,  planted  in  September,  will  furnish  grazing  from 
December  to  the  first  of  April.  Supplemental  feed,  1  per  cent 
corn  or  5  per  cent  sweet  potatoes. 

"  One  bushel  barley  and  10  pounds  red  clover  per  acre, 
planted  in  September,  will  furnish  grazing  from  December  to 
July.     Supplemental  feed,  same  as  above. 

"  Eight  pounds  Dwarf  Essex  rape  and  10  pounds  red  clover 
per  acre,  planted  in  September,  will  furnish  grazing  from 
December  to  July,  and  the  same  planted  in  February  will  pro- 
vide grazing  from  May  to  July.  Supplemental  feed,  same  as 
above. 

"  Alfalfa,  20  pounds  per  acre,  planted  in  September  or 
October,  or  in  IMarch  or  April,  will  furnish  grazing  from  March 
to  September.  The  pastures  should  not  be  over  stocked.  Sup- 
plemental feed,  1  per  cent  corn  and  shorts. 

"  One-half  bushel  cow-peas  per  acre,  drilled,  planted  in  May, 
June,  and  July,  will  furnish  grazing  from  August  to  Xovember. 
Supplemental  feed,  1  per  cent  corn,  or  5  per  cent  sweet  potatoes. 


250  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

"  Three-fourth  bushel  soy  beans  per  acre,  drilled,  planted  in 
May,  will  furnish  grazing  from  July  to  October.  Supplemental 
feed,  5  per  cent  sweet  potatoes,  1  per  cent  corn  and  shorts. 

'^  Two  bushels  peanuts  per  acre,  planted  in  April,  May,  or 
June,  will  furnish  grazing  from  August  to  Xovember.  Soy 
beans  may  be  drilled  between  rows  of  peanuts  when  laid  by,  and 
the  hogs  allowed  to  harvest  both.  Supplemental  feeds,  5  per 
cent  sweet  potatoes,  1  per  cent  corn. 

"  Eight  thousand  sweet  potato  plants  per  acre,  planted  in 
April  or  ^lay,  will  furnish  grazing  from  September  to  Xovember. 
Wheat,  rye,  rape  or  clover  can  follow.  Supplemental  feeds, 
peanut,  soy  bean,  alfalfa,  or  pea  hay. 

"  One-half  bushel  chufas  per  acre,  planted  in  April,  May,  or 
June,  will  furnish  grazing  from  August  to  Xovember.  Sup- 
plemental feeds,  1  per  cent  corn,  5  per  cent  sweet  potatoes. 

"  Corn  and  cow-peas,  V^  bushel  of  the  former  planted  in 
March  or  April,  and  l^/^  bushels  of  the  latter  planted  when  the 
corn  is  laid  by,  will  be  ready  to  graze  or  '*  hog  down  "  during  the 
fall     Supplemental  feeds,  5  per  cent  beets,  5  per  cent  rutabagas. 

"  One  to  one  and  one-half  bushels  wheat  or  rye  per  acre, 
sown  in  September  with  10  pounds  red  clover,  will  furnish  graz- 
ing from  December  to  ^lay.  The  wheat  or  rye  should  be  mowed 
off  in  March  to  give  air  to  the  clover.  Well  fertilized  soil  will  be 
required  for  a  good  yield  of  these  grazing  crops.  Supplemental 
feeds,  1  per  cent  corn,  5  per  cent  sweet  potatoes. 

"  Bermuda  and  Vetch :  In  this  state,  two  periods  of  the  year 
are  especially  severe  on  grazing  crops  for  hogs.  One  is  in  August, 
when  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry  and  the  pastures  fail,  and 
the  other  in  January  and  February,  when  it  is  very  wet  and  the 
hogs  cut  the  soft  ground.  These  conditions  can  be  overcome  by 
planting  cow-peas  in  May,  which  can  be  pastured  in  August,  and 
by  sodding  Bermuda  grass  with  a  good  sprinkle  of  vetch  for  the 
winter  pasture.  Our  native  Bermuda  grass  is  easily  grown  by 
planting  tufts  in  moist  ground  2  feet  apart,  when  it  goon  covers 


FATTENING  251 

the  entire  surface.  Sow  i/o  bushel  of  vetch  per  acre  broadcast 
with  this.  If  Bernuuhi  grass  seed  is  sown,  use  %  pound  seed 
per  acre.  Supplemental  feed,  1  per  cent  corn,  5  per  cent  sweet 
potatoes.  (The  Bermuda  grass  makes  a  permanent  pasture  after 
the  first  spring.) 

"Wheat  of  a  smooth  variety  and  vetch,  lo  bushel  of  each 
per  acre,  planted  in  the  fall,  make  an  excellent  winter  pasture 
until  the  wet  season  sets  in,  and  furnish  grazing  until  the  grain 
is  nearly  ripe.  (Rye  may  be  used  instead  of  wheat,  and  it  would 
probably  be  better  to  sow  1  to  lYi  bushels  of  wheat  or  rye 
per  acre  with  lo  bushel  of  vetch.)  Supplemental  feeds,  1  per 
cent  corn,  5  per  cent  sweet  potatoes. 

''  Sorghum,  \2  bushel  in  rows,  sown  in. drills,  can  be  planted 
as  a  catch  crop  from  the  first  of  April  to  August,  and  either  used 
as  a  grazing  crop,  or  cut  and  used  as  a  green  food.  This  crop 
is  generally  ready  for  grazing  or  feeding  in  214  months.  Sup- 
plemental feeds.  1  per  cent  corn,  .5  per  cent  sweet  potatoes -or 
grazing. 

"  Jerusalem  artichokes  (ground  artichokes),  3  bushels  per 
acre,  planted  like  Irish  potatoes  early  in  the  spring,  will  furnish 
fall  grazing,  although  hogs  are  not  so  fond  of  them  as  of  sweet 
potatoes. 

"  Stock  beets  for  winter  and  spring  feeding,  planted  in  early 
fall,  will  furnish  grazing  or  soiling  in  four  months.  Plant  8 
pounds  to  the  acre  in  ridges  and  thin  to  a  stand  of  about  10  to  12 
inches.     Supplemental  feeds,  1  per  cent  corn. 

"  Rutabagas  and  turnips  are  sown  in  corn  fields,  when  laying 
by,  as  a  catch  crop,  and  furnish  good  grazing  in  the  fall.  They 
can  also  be  so^vn  in  the  spring  or  summer  as  a  main  crop  and 
pulled  for  pigs,  especially  when  pastures  are  low." 

The  circular  also  states  that  Lespedeza  (Japan  clover)  may 
be  so■^^^l  in  April  on  finely  pulverized  soil  at  the  rate  of  S  to  10 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  which  will  give  pasture  from  September 
to  November.     The  seed  should  not  be  covered  with  a  harrow. 


252  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

It  is  stated  also  that  white  clover,  at  the  rate  of  G  pounds  per 
acre,  may  be  sown  with  Bermuda  grass  instead  of  vetch,  to  form  a 
permanent  pasture. 

Also,  velvet  beans  at  the  rate  of  y^^  bushel  per  acre  may  be 
planted  among  corn  when  the  corn  is  hiid  1)\',  instead  of  cow-peas 
as  previously  (los('i'il)e<l. 


cz 


Elevation  of  Panel 


Top  view  of  Panel 


Elevation  of  Support 


Fig.  55. — Panol  and  support  i)f  i>ortal)li'  Inirdlc  fonoo,  dcsinncd  liy  Dr.  E.  M.  Ranok,  of 
the  Mississippi  Agricultural  College  It  is  vi'ry  simple  ti)  make  and  easy  to  erect.  Note 
the  notch  in  the  bottom  piece  of  the  support.  This  notch  is  li'4  imhes  wide  and  3  inches 
deep.  The  ends  of  the  bottom  Ijoards  of  adjoining  j)anels  tit  into  the  notch  side  by  side, 
and  the  top  boards  fit  snuKly  into  tlie  apex  of  flie  trianpular  opening. 

Points  to  be  Considered. — 'J'he  following  are  given  as  im- 
portant points  in  raising  crops  for  hogs: 

^'  All  crops  that  produce  feed  underground,  such  as  sweet 
potatoes,  peanuts,  chufas,  artichokes,  and  root  crops,  grow  best 
on  sandy  loam  or  in  very  mellow  soils. 

"  The  legumes,  such  as  peas,  soy  beans,  and  clover,  should 


FATTENING 


253 


be  rotated  over  poor  clay  and  worn-out  soils  with  some  stable 
manure,  as  they  will  add  fertilizer  and  produce  fairly  good  graz- 
ing crops. 

"  Permanent  sod  pastures  are  necessary  for  grazing  during 
the  very  wet  or  very  dry  seasons  of  the  year. 

"  It  requires  very  rich,  well  manured,  and  thoroughly  pre- 
pared soils  to  grow  profitably  the  grain  crops,  such  as  barley, 


Photograph  ff- 


iplJi  A^'ritultural  College 


Fig.  56. — Duroc-Jersey  pigs  digging  Johnson  grass  roots  on  a  corn  headland.  This  is 
an  illustration  of  how  hops  can  turn  waste  material  into  value.  Another  type  of  portable 
fence  is  shown  in  the  picture,  but  it  is  not  so  simple  as  the  one  designed  by  Dr.  Ranck, 
Fig.  55. 

wheat,  rye,  etc.,  although  oats  sometimes  grow  fairly  well  on 
poor  soils. 

*'  Whenever  possible  and  practical,  the  crops  should  be  har- 
vested by  the  hogs  themselves.  It  is  cheaper,  and  the  exercise  is 
beneficial."     (Figs.  55,  56,  57.) 

For  hogs  fed  in  pens  without  grazing  crops  during  the  finish- 
ing period  of  fattening,  the  writer  of  the  circular  recommends 


25-4 


FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


a  ration  of  8  parts  corn  chops  to  1  part  cottonseed  meal.  (Fig. 
58.) 

When  tankage  was  used  in  place  of  cottonseed  meal,  better 
results  were  obtained,  but  the  ration  was  more  expensive. 

A  ration  composed  of  equal  parts  corn  chops  and  shorts  is 
also  commended. 

If  one  were  disposed  to  criticize  the  recommendations  made 
in  the  circular,  it  would  be  in  connection  with  the  amounts  of 
meal  recommended  in  the  supplemental  feeds  on  pasture.     One 


Pholoyraph  &om  Dr.  E.  M.  Ranck,  MibiiiSippi  A.L;riLultur.il  Col 


Fig.  57. — A  patch  of  field  peas  can  be  seen  through  the  bars  of  the  Kate.  One  can  Ret 
an  idea  of  the  amount  of  pasture  by  comparing  the  height  of  the  peas  with  that  of  the  mature 
sow  shown  in  the  foreground.     The  sow  appears  to  be  in  ideal  breeding  condition. 


per  cent  of  meal,  that  is  to  say  one  pound  of  meal  for  each  100 
pounds  live  weight  of  the  hogs,  looks  like  a  rather  light  meal 
allowance  for  growing  or  fattening  hogs.  The  reader  is  es- 
pecially referred  to  the  discussion  under  "  Amount  of  Grain  on 
Pasture  "  in  Chapter  XXII. 

Results  in  Alabama. — Bulletin  143  of  the  Alabama  Station 
gives  results  of  three  years'  experimental  work  with  swine.  The 
following  points  are  taken  from  the  summary  of  results. 

\\Tien  corn  was  used  alone  as  a  ration  for  fattening  hogs, 


FATTENING 


255 


both  the  daily  gains  and  the  tiiiaiicial  outcome  were  unsatis- 
factory. 

Ou  the  whole,  peanut  pasture  was  found  to  be  more  useful 
than  any  other  pasture  tried.  Pork  was  made  at  a  good  profit 
when  peanut  pasture  was  used  in  conjunction  with  corn. 

Mature  sorghum  pasture  has  very  little  to  recommend  it  as 
a  feed  for  fattening  swine.  Both  the  gains  and  the  financial 
outcome  were  unsatisfactory. 


Photograph  from 


Agricultural  CoUcije. 


Fig.  58. — Piggery  at  the  Mibsisiippi  Experiment  Station.     Details  of  plan  may  be  obtained 
by  writing  the  Director  of  the  Station. 

When  sorghum  was  cut  and  carried  to  the  hogs,  the  results 
were  better  than  when  the  hogs  were  made  to  graze  the  crop. 

Soy  bean  pasture  ranked  second  to  peanut  pasture  as  a  sup- 
plement to  corn. 

Chufa  pasture  was  not  found  to  be  as  good  as  either  peanut 
or  soy  bean  pasture. 

^\^len  hogs  have  been  grazing  a  green  crop,  it  usually  pays 
to  enclose  and  feed  them  in  a  dry  lot  for  a  short  period  after 
the  crop  is  exhausted. 

The  same  bulletin  gives  the  following  table : 


256 


FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


A  Succession  of  Green  Crops  for  Hog  Grazing. 

For  Fall  Planting. 


Crop. 


Alfalfa 

Burr  Clover  . 

Oats 

Rape 

Rye 

Vetch 

Alfalfa 

Chufas 

Cow-peas  .  .  . 

Japan  Clover 

Oats 

Peanuts 

Rape 

Sorghum .... 
Soy  Beans  .  . 


Time  to  plant. 


Sept.  1  to  Oct. 

Sept.  1  to  Oct. 

Sept.  1  to  Nov. 

Sept.  20  to  Oct. 


Sept. 
Sept. 


1  to  Nov. 
1  to  Oct. 


15 
1 
1 

15 

1 
15 


Amount  seed  per  acre. 


15  to  25  pounds 

'15  to  20  pounds  cleaned 

seed 
36  pounds  in  burr 
1 3^2  to  3  bushels 

4  to  6  pounds  drilled 

5  to  10  pounds  broad- 
cast 

IJ^  to  2  bushels 

1  bushel 


Number  days 
from  planting 

time  to 
grazing  time. 


For  Spring  and  Summer  Planting. 


Feb.      25  to  April 
March  15  to  June 


May 

March 

Feb. 

May 


1  to  July      10 

1  to  March  15 
1  to  March  20 
1  to  June     30 


March    1  to  March  31 


April 
April 


1  to  June     30 
1  to  June     30 


15  to  25  pounds 

3  to  4  pecks 

H  bushel  drilled  \ 

iy2  bushels  broadcast/ 

24  pounds 

1 3^  to  3  bushels 

1  to  2  bushels,  unhuUed 
4  to  6  pounds  drilled 
9  to  10  pounds  broad- 
cast 

1 H  to  2  bushels 

13^  bushels,  broadcast. 


90  to  120 

90  to  120 

90  to  120 

60  to    75 

90  to  120 
90  to  120 


75  to    90 
120  to  150 

75  to    90 

60  to  75 
75  to  90 
90  to  120 

60  to    75 

60  to  90 
90  to  120 


Pasture  the  Entire  Year. — The  following  is  quoted  from  Bul- 
letin 113  of  the  Florida  Station: 

"  The  following  is  a  list  of  useful  forage  crops  in  Florida. 
The  crops  in  this  list  will  give  pasture  through  the  entire  year. 

Dwarf  Essex  Rape,  can  be  pastured  from  December  to  ^larch. 
Japanese  Cane,  can  be  pastured  from  November  to  March. 
Rye,  Oats,  Barley,  can  l)e  pasturt-d  from  XovemU'r  to  April. 
Sor^'lium,  can  l)e  pastured  from  May  to  November. 
Chufas,  can  be  pastured  from  August  to  December. 
Sweet  Potatoes,   can   be  pastured   from   October  to  December. 
Cow-peas  and  Soy  Beans,  can  be  pastured  from  July  to  November. 
Peanuts,  can  be  pastured  from  September  to  December. 


FATTENING  257 

"  For  permanent  pasture,  it  is  doubtful  >vliether  we  can  get 
anything  belter  than  Bermuda  and  Johnson  grass." 

Pasture  Supplemented  with  Grain. — Professor  Good,  in  Bul- 
letin IT.")  of  tlie  Kentucky  Station,  gives  results  of  carefully  con- 
ducted experiments  with  several  forage  crops  for  swine.  Follow- 
ing is  a  summary  of  the  principal  points  brought  out  in  the  expe- 
riments : 

To  obtain  best  results  young  green  rye,  barley,  wheat,  and 
oats  should  be  grazed  by  hogs  when  the  plants  are  between  6 
inches  and  15  inches  in  height. 

There  is  no  time  that  grain  can  be  so  profitably  fed  to  a  hog 
as  when  he  is  young  and  running  on  pasture.  Some  experiments 
showed  as  high  as  18  pounds  gain  in  weight  for  each  bushel  of 
grain  fed. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  run  young  pigs  on  forage  crops  without 
a  grain  ration.  Breeding  sows,  when  not  nursing  pigs,  can  be 
maintained  on  pasture  alone,  but  young  pigs  are  apt  to  become 
stunted. 

During  the  spring,  summer,  and  early  fall  months,  from  one- 

Jialf  to  three-fourths  of  a  full  feed  of  grain  was  fed  to  hogs 

running  on  pasture.     During  the  late  fall,  winter,  and  early 

spring,  when  the  pastures  were  short,  nearly  a  full  ration  of  grain 

was  fed. 

Corn  meal  should  be  supplemented  with  soy  beans,  tankage, 
middlings,  or  with  some  other  nitrogenous  supplement,  when  fed 
to  pigs  running  on  young  rye  or  barley  during  the  winter  months. 

Pigs  averaging  66  pounds  per  head,  receiving  corn  meal 

alone,  but  allowed  the  run  of  a  clover  pasture  until  it  was  killed 

by  frost,  and  then  turned  on  a  pasture  of  young  rye,  averaged 

215  pounds  in  124  days,  making  a  gain  of  1-1.65  pounds  of  pork 

.  for  every  bushel  of  corn  meal  fed. 

Eighteen  pigs,  averaging  51  pounds  per  head,  averaged  222 
pounds  at  the  end  of  166  days,  from  receiving  a  ration  of  a 
mixture  of  corn  meal  9  parts,  and  soy  bean  meal,  1  part,  and 
17 


258  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

allowed  a  succession  of  forage  crops,  namely,  1  acre  rye  pasture, 
2  acres  oat  pastnrc,  and  1  acre  succotash  pasture.  The  gain  was 
1(5.47  pounds  for  every  bushel  of  grain  consumed.  The  suc- 
cotash, planted  June  22nd,  was  composed  of  2  Lushels  of  oats, 
1  pound  of  rape,  30  pounds  of  cow-peas,  30  pounds  of  soy  beans, 
and  2  pecks  of  corn. 

An  important  advantage  in  favor  of  pasturing  hogs  is  the 
fact  that  practically  none  of  the  manure  is  wasted. 

Pasture  for  Breeding  Stock. — It  will  not  be  found  satis- 
factory to  allow  breeding  sows  wnth  their  litters  to  run  in  large 
pastures  with  other  stock.  This  method  is  not  fair  to  either  the 
sow  or  her  litter,  because  this  is  a  critical  time,  and  a  little  extra 
attention  to  the  young  pigs  may  make  all  the  difference  between 
growthy,  profitable  hogs,  and  unprofitable  scrubs. 

Dr.  Tait  Butler,  in  a  bulletin  published  by  the  North  Carolina 
Department  of  Agriculture,  describes  the  pasture  lots  for  breed- 
ing sows  and  their  litters  at  the  Iredell  Test  Farm  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  The  portable  farrowing  pens  are  set  in  a 
grove  so  that  they  are  sheltered  from  the  extreme  heat  of  the  sun, 
each  pen  being  set  in  a  lot  100  feet  square  in  the  grove.  Running 
out  from  each  grove  lot  is  a  lot  100  feet  wide  by  450  feet  long. 
These  large  lots  are  divided  lengthwise,  giving  each  sow  and  her 
litter  two  lots,  each  50  feet  wide  by  450  feet  long.  One  of  these 
lots  is  in  permanent  pasture,  preferably  alfalfa,  and  the  other 
is  planted  with  some  other  pasture  crop,  so  that  the  sow  and  her 
litter  can  be  grazed  alternately  on  the  two  lots.  The  long,  nar- 
row lot  is  convenient  to  cultivate.  No  doubt  it  is  not  practicable 
for  every  swine  breeder  to  follow  the  plan  described  above,  but 
the  principle  is  sound,  and  may  suggest  to  the  thoughtful  man 
ways  and  means  of  improving  the  conditions  for  his  breeding 
stock  at  a  very  critical  period  of  their  existence. 

Shade  and  Water. — Ample  provision  for  shade  and  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  pure  drinking  water  are  of  great  importance  in 
keeping  hogs  healthy  and  thrifty.    To  compel  hogs  to  drink  from 


FATTENING  259 

filthy  wallows,  or  other  impure  sources,  is  to  court  disastor  from 
disease. 

Scope  of  Suggestions. — As  this  is  not  a  treatise  upon  South- 
ern agriculture,  it  is  out  of  the  question  to  discuss  suitable  soils, 
methods  of  cultivation,  etc.,  for  the  various  crops  mentioned.  All 
that  has  been  attempted  is  to  show  the  possibilities  of  the  South 
alone.-  the  line  of  cheap  pork  production,  and  to  urge  farmers  to 


1 

^^^1^^^ 

1              ^"'^    ly.-^  ^ 

-^^^  ~  '^  ^^^-ShH  Bh 

^      .."■•''                                                                1 

Photocraph  from  Dr.  £.  M.  Ranck,  Mississippi  AgriLultural  College. 

Fig.  59. — Hog  colony  house  recommended  by  the  Mississippi  Agricultural  College.  It 
is  a  modi6cation  of  the  A-shaped  pen,  the  sides  being  hinged  at  the  top.  In  summer  the 
sides  are  lifted  up  as  shown  in  the  picture,  in  which  position  it  affords  shade  during  the  whole 
day  and  allows  a  free  circulation  of  air.  In  winter  the  sides  are  let  down,  when  the  pen  is 
as  comfortable  as  the  ordinary  A-shaped  pen. 

Utilize  the  advantages  existing  in  their  location,  whether  the 
number  of  hogs  they  raise  be  few  or  many.  Experiment  Stations 
are  for  the  guidance  of  the  farmer,  and  the  wide-awake  farmer 
will  look  to  his  State  Experiment  Station  for  advice  regarding 
the  culture  of  crops  with  which  he  is  not  familiar. 

The  reader  is  referred  to  the  chapters  dealing  with  results 
of  experiments  in  swine  feeding  for  further  reference  to  many  of 
the  feeds  mentioned. 


260  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


SCRUBS  NOT  ECONOMICAL. 


The  legitimate  place  of  the  hog,  or  any  other  meat-produc- 
ing animal,  is  to  turn  cheap  feeds  into  valuable  meat,  and  the 
more  feed  a  hog  can  turn  into  pork  during  its  short  lifetime,  the 
more  valuable  it  is  to  its  owner.  Professor  Burns  of  the  Texas 
Experiment  Station  fed  six  scrubs  and  six  grade  Poland-Chinas 
on  the  same  kind  of  ration.  So  far  as  amount  of  feed  for  100 
pounds  gain  in  weight  was  concerned,  there  was  practically  no 
difference,  but  that  is  only  one  side  of  the  question.  While 
the  scrubs  were  making  850  pounds  gain  in  weight,  the  grades 
made  1130  pounds.  It  reijuired  no  more  labor  to  feed  the 
grades  than  the  scrubs,  it  cost  no  more  for  a  pound  of  pork  in 
the  grades  than  in  the  scrubs,  yet  the  grades  manufactured  280 
pounds  more  pork  than  the  scrubs.  From  the  standpoint  of 
labor  alone  the  grades  were  the  more  profitable,  but  this  is  not 
all.  When  sent  to  market,  the  packer  paid  $0.00  per  hundred 
weight  for  the  scrubs,  and  $0.65  for  the  grades,  and  as  a  result 
the  grades  showed  a  profit  of  $1.48  per  hog  more  than  the  scrubs. 
The  scrub  has  outlived  his  usefulness,  and  there  is  clearly  no 
place  for  him  in  present  day  agriculture. 

Scrub  Methods. — The  scrub,  unlike  the  poet,  can  be  made  as 
well  as  horn.  Methods  of  feeding  and  management  which  j)ro- 
duce  a  pig  weighing  from  KHJ  to  150  pounds  at  10  months  old, 
when  it  ought  to  weigh  at  least  300  pounds,  may  properly  be 
described  as  scrub  methods.  We  may  have  the  best  of  blood  in 
our  herd,  but  fail  to  secure  any  advantage  from  it  through  our 
carelessness  or  indifference.  To  effectively  eradicate  the  scrub 
requires  intelligent  methods  of  both  breeding  and  feeding,  and 
the  scrub  pig  will  disappear  when  scrub  methods  are  abandoned. 
The  principles  underlying  the  successful  handling  of  hogs  have 
been  pretty  fully  discussed  in  the  preceding  pages  of  this  and 
other  chapters  of  the  book. 


FATTENING  261 

REVIEW. 

1.  \\  liy  is  it  more  fxpi-nsive  to  fatten  hofjs  in  winter? 
•J.   How  mn  this  expense  he  rediued? 

3.  (Jive  eautions  rejrardinjr  quantity  anil  change  of  feed. 

4.  Tell   of   the   importance   of   regularity    in   feeding   and   comfortable 
quarters  for  fattening. 

5.  What  is  the  effect  of  age  on  the  cost  of  fattening? 
0.  ^^■hat  are  "correctives"? 

7.  How  are  they  supplied  to  swine? 

S.  From  the  results  given  in  this  chapter,  do  hogs  pay  well  for  their 
feed? 

9.  Give    advantages   of   the   South    for    swine   husbandry. 

10.  Outline  a  pasture  succession  for  hogs  in  your  section. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
SUGGESTIONS  TO  BEGINNERS. 

Starting  in  Business, — ()no  of  the  most  coninion  mistakes 
for  a  beginner  to  make  is  to  be  too  ambitious,  and  to  make  his 
start  on  too  large  a  scale.  As  a  result,  he  is  liable  to  meet  with 
some  rather  serious  losses  and  to  become  discouraged.  Perhaps 
the  safest  way  to  start  is  to  buy  one  or  two  young  sows  safely  in 
pig  to  a  good  boar.  It  costs  more  money  to  start  this  way  than 
to  buy  newly  weaned  i)igs,  but  this  disadvantage  is  more  than 
compensated  by  the  fact  that  a  ])erson  is  able  to  make  a  much 
more  intelligent  selection  by  buying  a  more  fully  develo])od 
aiiinial  than  he  cnuld  make  if  lie  bought  liis  sow  vorv  young.  In 
addition  to  this  advantage,  lie  lias  a  shorter  time  to  wait  for 
returns.  He  is  also  saved  the  necessity  of  imnuMl lately  buying 
a  l)oar,  if  there  is  not  a  good  one  in  the  near  neighborhood,  and 
need  not  tie  up  capital  in  a  b<»ar  until  lie  has  had  some  money 
returns  from  his  venture,  provided,  of  courso.  that  he  cares  to 
sell  some  of  his  young  ])igs  at  an  early  age,  (  Sec  "  Selection  of 
the  Sow,"  pp.  37  and  :]S.) 

Breed  to  Select. — As  to  the  breed  to  select,  each  man  must 
l>o  his  o\m  judge,  Xearly  any  of  (uir  \vell-kn(»\vn  breeds  will 
give  gowl  results  if  intelligently  handled.  Generally  speaking, 
however,  it  is  safer  for  a  lieginner  to  select  a  l>ree<l  which  is 
popular  in  his  owti  neighborhood,  Tjv  doing  so,  he  has  a  better 
chance  to  make  new  selections  for  his  herd,  and  will  find  it 
easier  to  sell  breeding  stock  in  his  o^^^l  neighborhood  in  the  face 
of  competition,  than  to  do  missionary  work  for  a  new  breed, 
which,  after  all  his  efforts,  may  fail  to  win  popularity'  in  his 
district.     This  paragraph  applies  only  to  the  man  who  wishes 

(262) 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  BEGINNERS  263 

to  sell  puiv-bred  }>igs  fur  hnt'ding  purposes.  If  he  is  merely 
raising  market  pigs,  the  drover  or  butcher  is  the  only  man  to 
please,  ^^^lateve^  breed  is  selected,  it  should  be  retained.  Xo 
man  need  expect  to  make  a  success  of  breeding  any  class  of 
animals  if  he  keeps  chaaiging  from  one  breed  to  another. 

Buying  a  Boar. — Sooner  or  later  the  beginner  will  want  to 
own  a  boar  of  his  own,  but  if  there  is  a  really  good  boar  in  his 
neighlwrhood  to  which  he  can  breed  his  sows,  he  had  better  post- 
pone the  purchase  until  he  has  gained  considerable  experience. 
He  %\'ill  find  that  there  are  many  things  about  selecting  a  lx)ar 
which  cannot  be  learned  from  books,  and  that  wisdom  will  come 
from  experience.  Boars  can  be  bought  for  the  least  money 
when  they  are  very  small,  but  this  method  has  too  many  of 
the  elements  of  a  game  of  chance  to  be  commendable.  When 
buying  a  young  boar,  it  will  be  found  safer  to  buy  one  from 
eight  to  twelve  months  old  than  a  pig  two  or  three  months  old. 
The  reason  for  this  recommendation  is  plain,  it  being  im- 
possible to  foretell  just  how  the  very  young  pig  is  going  to 
develop.  Highly-fitted  show  boars  had  better  be  avoided.  As 
pointed  out  in  another  place,  pedigree  is  important,  but  the 
boar  should,  to  some  extent  at  least,  demonstrate  the  excellence 
of  the  blood  l>ehind  him.  It  is  more  satisfactory  to  select  by 
personal  inspection  than  to  buy  through  correspondence.  A 
visit  to  the  herd  which  produced  the  boar  enables  one  to  judge 
the  general  quality  of  the  hogs  produced  in  the  herd,  and  one 
can  pick  up  information  regarding  the  sire  and  dam  that  could 
not  othen\'iso  be  obtained.  It  is  easy  to  pay  too  much,  and  it  is 
possible  to  be  too  economical.  It  is  not  so  much  a  question  of 
how  few  dollars  we  invest  as  it  is  one  of  how  much  real  merit 
we  can  get  for  every  dollar  invested. 

If  the  boar  is  shipped  some  distance  and  arrives  excited  and 
tired,  he  should  be  fed  very  lightly  at  first  and  not  used  for 
several  weeks  after  his  an-ivnl. 


264  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Cheap  Buildings.- — The  iK-giunor  should  not  go  in  for  ex- 
pensive buildings,  A  few  cheap  shacks  will  answer  his  purpose 
very  well  for  a  few  years,  and  before  building  he  should  take  a 
look  around  among  other  breeders  and  see  what  kind  of  build- 
ings they  find  most  satisfactory  (Fig,  77).  What  will  suit  one 
part  of  the  country  may  not  suit  another,  so  that  it  is  important 
to  study  what  is  giving  satisfaction  in  his  o^vn  neighborhood. 
For  cold  climates,  the  method  of  making  the  ceiling  of  the  pen 
of  poles  or  boards  placed  a  few  inches  apart  and  covered  with 
a  layer  of  straw  is  woi-tli  investigating.  Of  course,  the  straw 
should  l)e  renewed  every  year. 

Cheapening  Production. — The  Ix'ginner  is  urged  to  read 
Chapter  1,  the  place  of  the  hog  on  the  farm.  Having  hogs 
on  hand  at  the  time  they  are  most  needed  for  consuming  sul)- 
stances  which  would  otherwise  go  to  wastt^  is  one  of  the  secrets 
of  handling  hogs  profitably.  At  certain  seasons  there  may  be 
more  dairy  by-products  to  consume  than  at  others,  and  on  nearly 
every  farm  there  are  stubble  fields  to  glean  and  fallen  fruit  to 
dispose  of,  or  other  ])(M*ishable  jiroducts  which  may  go  to  waste 
if  hogs  are  not  on  hand  at  tJie  right  time.  Any  farmer  who 
keeps  hogs  should  make  a  study  of  this  phase  of  the  question, 
or  he  will  not  derive  the  full  benefit  from  his  hogs  as  economical 
revenue  pro<lucers. 

The  ])ossibility  of  utilizing  ]iasture  crops  should  also  be 
studied,  and  the  ex])eriniental  work  with  ))astures  described  in 
another  chapter  will  rej)ay  careful  reading.  Fvcmi  though  special 
pasture  crops  uuiy  not  bo  sown,  it  is  gencrnlly  jmssible  to  lighten 
feed  bills  by  utilizing  second-growth  cIovcm-.  or  newly-seeded 
clover  fields,  if  one  will  take  the  trouble  to  ring  his  pigs.  The 
feeder  must  always  be  on  the  alert  to  take  advantage  of  every 
opportunity  to  utilize  the  cheap  feeds  and  thus  increase  his 
profits. 

Promptness     in     Reg^istering. — If     pure-bred     swine     are 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  BEGINNERS 


265 


liaiidled,  the  brooder  should  iiiako  liiniselt"  aecjiiaiiitod  with  the 
miles  of  registration  for  the  breed,  'ilio  secretary  of  the  breed 
association  will  furnish  full  information  and  blank  forms  free 
of  oharii'o,  so  there  is  no  excuse  for  ignorance  in  regard  to  this 
matter.  When  an  animal  is  sold,  promptness  in  forwarding 
the  certificate  of  registration  and  transfer  will  l)e  appreciated 
b_v  the  ])urohasor. 

Keeping  Records — The  breeder  of  pure-bred  stock  should 
koc])  an  accurate  record  of  his  breeding  operations.  As  time 
g(K'S  on,  these  records  become  more  and  more  valuable.  They 
onal)lo  him  to  avoid  mistakes,  and  may  save  him  from  financial 
loss  in  case  of  a  dispute.  Before  mailing  the  registration 
certificate  of  an  animal  which  has  been  sold,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  co])v  from  the  certificate  into  a  book  kept  for  the  purpose  tlie 
name  and  registration  number  of  the  animal,  date  of  birth, 
name  and  number  of  sire,  name  and  number  of  dam,  date  of 
sale,  and  name  and  address  of  purchaser.  It  takes  only  a  few 
minutes  to  enter  this  information  in  a  book  ruled  for  the  pur- 
IX)se,  and  the  information  accumulated  in  a  book  of  this  kind 
will  be  found  invaluable  as  time  goes  on. 

Another  very  important  book  is  one  which  gives  particulars 
regarding  the  produce  of  each  sow.  Below  is  given  an  illus- 
tration of  the  method  of  ruling  this  book. 


Sow. 

Service  boar. 

Date  of 
service. 

Date  of 
farrowing. 

Num- 
ber 
of 

pigs. 

a 

u 
03 

Notes. 

Name. 

No. 

Name. 

No. 

Lucky  Lady 

25193 

Concord  Ideal 

24295 

Dec.  10/12 

Apr.  1,'13 

10 

3 

1  pig     died 
.\pril  10. 

2  boars  cas- 
trated. 

1  sow  sold  to 
butcher,     Nov- 
vember  5. 

j 

266 


DEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


Wlien  grade  pigs  are  kept,  a  record  of  date  of  service  and 
date  of  farrowang  for  each  sow  is  all  that  is  necessar)^  but 
when  a  man  is  handling  pure-hreds  ho  cannot  be  too  careful  in 
keeping  records.  A  page  such  as  is  illustrated  here  will  hold 
the  names  of  quite  a  number  of  sows,  so  that  there  is  very  little 
trouble  in  keeping  a  record  of  this  kind.  This  record,  along  witli 
the  one  which  gives  particulars  as  to  hogs  sold  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, will  enable  one  to  account  for  every  pig  each  sow  pro- 
duces, which  is  the  only  business-like  method  of  handling  st(X'k. 

Identification.^ — The  column  headed  "  Ear  mark  "  requires 
exj^lanation.  When  several  breeding  sows  are  kept,  and  the 
young  pigs  are  all  nimiing  together  after  weaning,  there  is  a 
danger  that  the  identity  of  certain  pigs  may  be  lost.  To  pre- 
vent any  such  occurrence,  it  is  important  that  each  litter  should 
have  a  mark  of  identification.  After  the  pigs  are  five  or  six 
months  old,  metal  ear  labels  can  be  used  to  good  advantage  to 
identify  individuals,  and  it  is  a  g(X>d  plan  to  insert  ear  labels 
in  every  pig  at  the  time  it  is  recorded ;  but  metal  labels  are 
not  satisfactory  for  very  small  pigs.  A  plan  followed  by  the 
writer  is  to  use  the  ear  punch,  which  is  employed  when  insert- 
ing tags,  and  with  it  nij)  a  small  ])iece  out  of  the  edge  of  the 
ear  of  each  little  pig  before  it  is  weaned,  giving  each  pig  in 
the  litter  the  same  mark.  The  location  of  the  mark  indicates 
the  number,  and  the  following  plan  of  numbering  will  be 
found  satisfactory  with  either  pigs  or  lambs. 


I.oriitioii  i)f  mark. 


Lower  side,  next  to  head 

Lower  side,  midway  between  head  and  tip  of  ear 

Tip..... 

Upper  side,  midway  between  head  and  tip  of  ear 
Upper  side,  next  to  head 


Number  indicated. 

Left  ear. 

Right  ear. 

1 

10 

2 

20 

:i 

30 

4 

40 

5 

50 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  BEGINNERS  267 

For  example  (Fig.  Go)  all  the  pigs  in  the  first  litter  would 
have  a  nip  taken  out  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  left  ear  next  to  the 
lioad,  -which  represents  Xo.l.  No.  2  is  indicated  hv  taking  a  nip 
out  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  left  ear  half  way  between  the  base 
and  the  tip ;  and  the  pigs  in  the  third  litter  have  a  nip  taken 
out  of  the  tip  of  the  left  ear,  and  so  forth.  Between  5  and  10 
two  nicks  are  necessary.  Thus,  6  =  5-|-l.  7  =  5-1-2. 
S  =  5-|-3.  9  =  5-|-4.  For  No.  10,  we  go  to  the  lower  side 
of  the  right  ear  next  to  the  head.  Larger  numbers  call  for 
various  combinations,  for  example  :11::^10-|-1.  12  =  10-|-2. 
l7  =  10-|-5-f-2,  etc.  The  nick  should  not  be  made  deep,  or 
it  will  disfigure  the  ear ;  just  a  little  deeper  than  the  thickness 


^•/f  Tt.jht  u/t. 


Fia.  00  Fig.  61 

Fig.  60. — One  method  of  numbering  pigs  by  means  of  ear  marks.  If  all  the  pigs  in  a 
litter  are  given  the  same  mark,  the  large  numbers  will  be  unnecessary,  except  in  very  large 
herds. 

Fio.  61. — Another  method  of  ear-marking  pigs,  which  some  may  prefer  to  the  one 
first  mentioned. 

of  the  skin  is  sufiicient.     If  the  piece  is  cu^  out  cleanly,  the 
mark  will  stay  as  long  as  the  ear  lasts. 

Another  method  of  numbering  is  as  follows:  A  cut  on  the 
lower  or  outer  side  of  the  right  ear  indicates  "  one,"  and  ?. 
corresponding  cut  on  the  left  ear  indicates  "  three."  Also, 
a  cut  on  the  upper  or  inner  side  of  the  right  ear  indicates  "  ten," 
and  a  corresponding  cut  on  the  left  ear  indicates  "thirty." 
Thus  Xo.  2  would  be  indicated  by  two  cuts  on  outer  side  of  right 
ear.  Xo.  4  would  be  3  +  1.  Xo.  G  would  call  for  two  cuts  on 
outer  side  of  left  ear.  X^.  7  =  6  +  1.  X^'o.  43  =  30  +  10 
-|-  3.  Two  cuts  on  inner  side  of  left  ear  would  indicate  GO,  and 
three  cuts  would  be  00.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  a  great  many 
numbers  may  be  indicated  by  using  different  combinations  of 
cuts.    (Fig.  61.) 


26S  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

On  the  front  page  of  the  record  book,  a  sketch  should  be  made 
similar  to  the  ones  shown  here,  indicating  the  location  and  valnc 
of  different  cuts.  This  will  make  a  convenient  reference  and 
will  help  to  avoid  mistakes. 

In  case  a  breeder  prefers  to  insert  ear  labels  at  the  time 
of  weaning,  the  system  of  marking  described  above  will  be 
unnecessary,  a  ml  in  the  column  headed  "  Ear  mark  "  he  would 
enter  the  numbers  of  all  the  labels  used  for  the  litter. 

Instead  of  ear  labels,  tattoo  markers  may  be  used  for  white 
pigs. 

Gestation  Table. — On  page  269  is  a  gestation  table  for  sows, 
which  will  be  found  convenient  for  reference.  In  the  table  the 
period  of  gestation  is  placed  at  112  days,  but  a  great  many  sows 
will  go  a  few  days  past  the  time  stated.  Everything  should  be 
in  readiness,  however,  before  the  112  days  are  up. 

Business  Methods. — The  importance  of  supplying  registra- 
tion certificates  prom])tly  to  customers,  and  of  keeping  an 
accurate  record  of  breeding  operations  and  of  animals  sold, 
has  already  been  mentioned ;  but^  in  addition  to  these  records, 
the  breeder  should  have  some  method  of  book-keeping  which 
will  show  the  financial  standing  of  the  business.  The  system 
need  not  be  complicated,  but  the  books  shoidd  at  least  show  all 
sales,  and  all  purcliascs,  wlictlier  of  feed  or  stock,  and  should 
contain  an  inventory  showing  the  value  of  the  stcK'k  on  hand  at 
the  beginning  of  each  year.  Ft  is  worth  wliih',  also,  to  use 
neatly  and  attractively  printed  letter-heads  and  envelopes  in 
answering  coiTcspondence.  They  help  to  secure  business.  Above 
all,  the  breeder  must  remember  that  a  satisfied  customer  is  an 
eifective  advertisement,  and  lliai  it  is  poor  business  to  tiike 
advantage  of  a  customer  in  any  way. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  BEGINNERS 


269 


5" 

c 

CO  CO  to  lO  to  ts5  to  to  to  fO  N3  fO  I-- ►- I-"  1-- >- H- i-- >— I-*  H-                                                        fe* 

^0«OOO^C50i»*>-OOtO>-OOOO^OiOi4-COtO^O      OOOMOJOlrfkCOtOi-'p 

1  Date 
Served 

a  n 

bototO'—i-'i-'i-'H-i-ii— h-i-'k-i                                    2  M  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  tc^ 

tOH-o;cioo^05Cnrfi.cotOH-ooooMa>c;»t;kCobo h- p  oooo^jc20i*>-co to^ 

Date 
Due 

Date 
Served 

.     .     _  ^  H- ►-.  ^  >- ^  ►-.  ►- i-i  ►-.                                                 ^W  CO  to  to  to  to  to  to  tOi^ 
•      •      05000^0;Cn4^0ilOH-OOX^OCnrf^OOlOH-3^-OC000^03C>i»;»tO» 

Date 
Due 

Date 
Served 

to  _  _  ^  i_i  H- 1-.  ^  H- !-•  i-»                                              ^  CO  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  c* 

OOaC^05C;i4^COtO>-'0«OOOM05Cn*>.COtOi-'  —  OcOa)^C5Cn*.COtOH-OB 

Date 
Due 

Date 

Served 

B 

C. 
C 

.    W4  — H-r-i— t-i— ►-.1—1-.                                       ^cooototototoiototototo^     Date 

•      O  00  ^  05  Oi  rf^  00  to  H- O  CO  00  ^  05  Ctj  >|i.  CO  to  t-^  ►- O  O  00  M  05  en  4^  CO  to  H- £-      Due 

0 

CO  CO  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  H- i-i  ^  H- 1— h-i  i-i       H- i-i  h-i                                                        S 

H-O;D00^050i*«.C0t0>-O«000^0iCn*i.C0      tO>-'Oir>00"<I05C;ihf>.COtOi-'P 

Date 
Served 

3 

CO                                                                                s. 
^  _  ►_.  H- H- 1-1  h-i  1-i  1-1  i-i                                                       re  CO  CO  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  p^ 

000^050i4i.COtOt-'OOQOM05C;irfi-CObO  l—^  H- OCDri0^05C;irfa>COtOH-  o,^ 

Date 
Due 

a 

re 

Date 

Served 

o 
a 

.      ^  i_  ►_>  ^  H- 1-^  h- h- i— 1--                                                       O  CO  t^  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  re' 

•      OOO^CJC;i4^COtO>-'0;000<l05C;itf>.COtOi-'nOCOOO^C:5tf»*'COtO'-  o^ 

Date 
Due 

a. 

p 

Date 

Served 

o 
5' 

H-.  1-.  1— _  _  H- »- h- ^  H-                                     ^cooj  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  too 

COOO'vl05CT.f^COtOH-OC000^05Cn>;».COtO>— ^h- OC000^050i*>.COtO>— og. 

Date 
Due 

cr 

p 

a 

Date 
Served 

cr 
a 

to  —  i—H-^^i.-h-i-'i-'i--                                       Ocototototototototototo?'!  Date 
o«Doo^oia»*-cotOH-.o«oooM05C;trfi.cotOH-g  ooooMa>oirfi.coto  —  o°     Due 

P 

a- 

Date 
Served 

5 

.    i_>i_>^^H^i_>i_'^^i-'»->K^                                       ^cocotototototototototoD 
•    oooMcscnrfi-coio  — o«ooo<ioic;irf^coiOH-g  —ocooo^crsoirf^coiOH-™ 

Date 
Due 

5- 

p_ 

CO  CO  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  t- t-- —  H- H- t-i  1—       t— —  I-'                                                        O 

►— OCD00^05Cn*'COtOH-0?OOO^lC5Cn4^CO       tOi— OOOOMOiC^lhf'.COtOl-'n 

Date 
Served 

p 

re 
a 

*:;t?'~'^*^'~"-'^'-"-'                                        ^cocototototototototototoi^l  Date 
000^05Cn4».COtO  —  OOX^JC;C;irf^COlO— g.—  OOOO^C--C;>4^COtOi— og    1  Due 

Date 
Served 

•    totoi— 1— I)— ii-Ji— 11— 11— 11— 11— ii— I                                      Stototototototototol? 

■     H-OO00^05C;»*.C0t0i— O;000^05O^^f>.C0t0^-'S;00-^0>C^l*«.C0l0^-•oS• 

Date 
Due 

c 

C0C0tOt0t0t0tOt0t0t0tOt0l-'l-'l-'l-'l-•l-*— i-ii-i      i-i                                                    o 

—  OwOi^IC.  OT4^COtOH-00(»"«4C5C;i>ti.COtOH-      OCOOOMOtnif^COtOt— S 

Date 
Served 

a' 

—  OOOoCJSSI^WtO  —  O«0  00^C>C7.i*^C0t0>--'S— OOX^OCnl^COlOS 

Date 
Due 

270  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


REVIEW. 


1.  Give  two  plans  to  follow  when  starting  in  the  swine  business. 

2.  What  is  the  proper  breed  for  him  to  select?     Why? 

3.  Before  buying  a  boar,  why  visit  the  lierd  from  which  he  comes? 

4.  Give  several  ways  in  cheapening  production. 

o.  Give  tJie  points  to  be  recorded  in  keeping  a  swine-breeder's  record, 
fi.  Describe  the  systems  used  for  identifying  pure-bred  swine. 

7.  Tell  of  the  use  of  a  gestation  table. 

8.  Why  keep  accounts?     What  items  should  be  entered? 

9.  Give  other  points  of  good  business  methods. 


PART  VI 
MARKETING  AND  CURING 


CHAPTER  XXX. 
MARKETS  AND  SWINE  PRODUCTS. 

The  hog  market  of  the  United  States  is  extremely  com- 
plicated, local  conditions  and  demands  rendering  it  difficult  to 
present  the  subject  in  anything  like  a  clear  and  concise  form. 
The  subject  is  one  of  such  great  inijx>i*tance,  however,  that  an 
attempt  sliould  be  made  to  ex])lain  some  of  its  principal 
features. 

Grades  of  Hogs. — In  the  smaller  packing-houses  east  of 
Chicago,  the  hogs  are  not  so  finely  graded  nor  so  systematically 
cut  into  standard  cuts  as  they  are  in  the  great  markets  of 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph,  and  Omaha.  The 
method  of  gi-ading  live  hogs  in  the  large  markets  does  not 
materially  differ,  and  the  Chicago  market  may  be  regarded  as 
typical  of  the  American  hog  and  provision  trade.  If  we  read 
Chicago  market  reports,  we  find  the  following  classification 
of  live  hogs : 

Choice  to  prime  heavy.  (Fig.  62.) 

Medium  to  good  heavy. 

Butclier  weights. 

Good  to  prime  mixed. 

Rough  heavy  ])acking. 

Poor  to  prime  ])igs. 

Straight  to  licavy  ])acking. 

Selected  bacons. 

Stags. 

Boars. 

"  Prime  "  refers  to  the  degree  of  finish  and  maturity  evinced 
by  the  hog.     To  grade  as  prime,  a  hog  must  be  highly  finislied 
18  (rjz) 


274 


MARKETING  AND  CURING 


and  give  evidence  of  being  fitted  to  a  liiuli  degree  of  perfection. 
(Fig.  62.)  In  other  words,  prime  hogs  are  those  which  fully 
come  up  to  the  highest  standard  of  the  class  to  which  they 
belong.     Choice  hogs  are  •scarcely  equal  to  prime  hogs,  and  good 

hogs  stand  a  little  lowei-  still,  than  the  choice. 

"  Mcdhun"  sduietimes  refers  to  weight,  alone,   and  some- 


Fia.  62. —  "Prime  heavy  hoRS,"  weiKht  350  to  500  pounds,  the  cxlrciiic  <if  the  fiit  or  liird 
type.  At  one  time  the.se  hon.s  were  much  more  numerou.s  on  American  markets  than  they 
are  to-day.     (Photo,  from  niinois  Experiment  Station.) 

times  includes  (piality  as  well.  Many  market  terms  are  purely 
Ideal   in  signi ticaiiee.  and  hence  are  dillienlt  to  detine. 

"  Comtnon- "  rej)rescnts  a  still  lower  grade,  and  "  poor " 
and  "  rough  "  the  least  desirable  grades. 

"  llcavji  "  hogs  may  range  in  weight  fr(~»m  350  tt)  .lOO 
])(innds.  They  are  ii<it  so  nnmerons  as  they  were  some  years 
ago,  but  they  still  constitute  (piite  an  im]iortant  feature  of  the 


MARKETS  AND  SWINE  PRODUCTS 


275 


market.  Though  the  general  treiul  of  the  markt-t  is  towards 
lighter  weights,  it  not  infrequently  hai)pens  that  prime  heavy 
hogs  command  a  premium  over  other  sorts,  especially  when  the 
hird  market  is  strong.  "  Clear  backs  "  and  "  clear  bellies," 
which  are  entirely  composed  of  fat,  come  from  this  class  of 
hogs,  though  it  is  difficult  to  establish  any  definite  relation 
l>etween  the  live  hog  and  it-s  product,  owing  to  the  fact  that  tlie 


t7-:j ' 

X 

. 

■^ 

i^/. 

H 

fei 

HH[H^\^.           ;.;  J^^H 

w 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^r    ^ 

""'■"'  Yj^ 

pHpiP 

^^^^^^^^^^^Bjl^  T 

V 

^^^Bs^iHI 

iB^^^Evi 

..:^%4^"        '^ 

M 

^EL 

t'iG.  ii'6. — "Pniiif  iiiedium  butchers,"  weight  220  to  2SU  pounds,  very  Hiiioolh  jind 
highly  finished.  "Light  butchers"  are  of  the  same  general  type  but  lighter,  180  to  220 
pounds.  Butcher  hogs  are  commonly  used  for  the  fresh  meat  trade.  Prime  butcher  hogs 
represent  the  highest  quality  of  fat  hog.     (Photo,  from  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 

packer  must  shape  his  course  largely  to  suit  market  demands, 
and  these  vary  from  time  to  time. 

"Butcher"  hogs  (Figs.  63  and  64)  may  vary  in  weight 
from  180  to  350  pounds.  This  class  may  be  subdivided  as 
follows:  Heavy  l)ntchers,  280  to  350  pounds;  medium  butchers, 
±20  to  280  pounds;  light  butchers,  180  to  220  pounds.  The 
heavy  butchers  are  also  graded  into  "  prime  "  and  "  good,"  and 
the  medium  and  light  butchers  each  into  "  prime,"  "  good," 
and  "  common."  The  Chicago  market  report  referred  to  has 
lumped  all  the  butclior  hogs  togotlier.     P)Utelu'r  liog^  are  prin- 


276 


MARKETING  AND  CURING 


MARKETS  AND  SWIXE  PRODUCTS  277 

cipally  barrows,  aucl  are  commonly  iised  for  the  fresh  meat 
trade,  though  they  may  be  variously  used,  according  to  the 
peculiarities  of  the  market. 

*'  Packing  "  hogs  are  not  equal  in  quality  to  "  butcher  " 
hogs.  Old  brood  sows  tliat  have  been  well  fattened  tind  their 
way  into  this  class,  as  well  as  all  hogs  tliat  have  not  the  re- 
quisite quality  and  finish  for  the  "  butcher  "  or  *'  prime  heavy  " 
classes,  but  have  suilicient  weight  and  finish  to  qualify  for  the 
purpose  for  which  packing  hogs  are  used.  The  meat  from 
]KU'king  hogs  is  cured  and  packed  in  barrels  or  boxes,  hence  the 
name  of  the  class,  as  well  as  the  name  of  the  industry.  Packing 
hogs  are  usually  graded  as  *"  heavy,"  ''  medium,"  and  '*  mixed." 
Heavy  packing  hogs  weigh  from  300  to  500  pounds,  and  medium 
packing  from  250  to  300  pounds.  ''  Mixed  packing  "  is  a  term 
applied  to  hogs  which  are  marketed  without  grading,  and  the 
class  may  contain  representatives  of  almost  all  classes,  packing 
hogs,  of  course,  predominating.  Generally  they  sell  at  a  slight 
discount  as  compared  witli  properly  classified  and  graded  hogs, 
and  frequently  they  are  bought  by  speculators  in  the  stock 
yards,  who  buy  large  nmnbers,  divide  them  up  into  their  proper 
classes  and  grades,  and  resell  tliem.  "  Bough  "  packing  hogs 
are  coarse,  and  lacking  in  condition. 

"Pigs"  are  light  hogs,  weighing  from  60  to  125  jx^unds. 
They  are  young,  as  their  weights  indicate,  and  tlieir  meat  is 
unsuitable  for  curing.  They  supply  a  demand  for  cheap  fresh 
meat. 

"  Bacon  hogs  "  as  quoted  in  Chicago,  are  not  suitable  for 
making  Wiltshire  sides.  They  are  merely  selected  light  hogs, 
weighing  from  155  to  195  pounds.  (Fig.  65.)  They  are  of 
the  same  breeds  that  produce  the  lard  type,  but  they  are  young, 
from  six  to  eight  months,  and  have  not  Ixn^n  fattened  to  the 
highest  degree.     They  are  used  principally  f(^r  supplying  the 


278 


MARKETING  AND  CURING 


home  (h^iiiand  for  comparatively  lean  meat.  A  hog  suitable 
for  making  Wiltshire  sides  is  usually  classed  as  an  *'  English 
hacon  hog,"  since  the  Wiltshire  side  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
English  triidc  The  St.  Vnw]  niiirket  is  about  the  only  American 
market  which  gives  ])r()minenc('  to  the  English  bacon  hog. 

■  Stays  "  are  males  which  have  been  castrated  too  late  in  life 


Kio.  65. -^"Choice  bacon,"  as  classified  by  Chicago  packers.  These  hogs  are  not  suit- 
able for  "  Wiltshire  sides,"  but  are  simply  light  hogs  of  tne  fat  or  lard  type.  They  help  to 
supply  a  growing  demand  for  leaner  meat.     (Photo,  from  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 


to  grade  as  barrows.  The  smoothest  of  them  may  go  into  the 
packing  class,  the  roughest,  with  the  boars,  and  various  uses  are 
found  for  intermediate  sorts.  They  are  docked  80  pounds  in 
selling,  so  that  the  quoted  market  price  is  higher  than  the  seller 
actually  receives. 

T}ie  meat  from  hoars  is  used  largely  for  sausages,  and  also 
helps  to  ■supj)ly  the  (lemand  for  cheap  meat. 

Tendency  toward  Lighter  Hogs. — Generally  speaking,  it 


MARKETS  AND  SWINE  PRODUCTS  279 

may  be  f^aid  that  the  knidency  of  tlic  Ainerican  market  during 
the  past  teu  years  has  boon  towards  a  lighter  and  leaner  hog. 
The  most  desirable  weight  for  butcher  and  packing  hogs  is  250 
pounds,  though,  as  previously  stated,  there  are  times  when  heavy 
hogs  command  a  j)remium.  It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that 
"  butcher  "  hogs  represent  the  best  market  hogs  of  the  fat  or 
lard  type. 

Hog  Products. — The  market  for  live  hogs  is  somewhat  com- 
plicated, but  the  market  for  hog  products  is  very  much  more 
complicated  than  the  former.  The  speculative  provision  market 
quotes  only  *"  pork,"  ""  ribs/'  and  "  lard."  These  are  the  only 
pork  products  traded  in  on  the  Board  of  Trade  in  the  way  of 
options.  To  a  certain  extent  they  govern  the  prices  of  other 
pork  products. 

"  Pork  "  refers  to  standard  mess  pork,  which  is  made  from 
the  sides  of  well-fattened  liog-s.  The  hams  and  shoulders  are 
removed,  and  tlie  sides  cut  into  strips  about  six  inches  wide. 
These  pieces  are  packed  in  barrels  with  salt  and  brine,  the 
number  of  pieces  to  a  barrel  varying  from  seven  to  sixteen. 
Barrel  pork  is  quoted  on  the  market  on  the  basis  of  200  pounds 
net  to  the  barrel. 

There  are  other  classes  of  barrel  pork,  such  as  prime  mess 
])ork,  in  which  the  shoulder  is  included  with  the  side,  extra 
])rime  pork,  and  extra  shoulder  ])ork,  taken  from  the  shoulders 
alone,  and  numerous  other  kinds  which  it  would  be  scarcely 
profitable  to  describe,  because  each  packer  has  his  own  methods 
of  cutting  pork,  outside  of  certain  standard  products. 

"  Ribs,"  or  short  rib  sides,  are  cut  from  the  sides,  leavinsr 
out  hams  and  shoulders,  in  the  same  way  as  standard  mess 
pork.  These  are  dry  salted  and  packed  in  Iwxes  containing 
500  to  525  pounds  net,  or  shipped  loose  in  the  car,  salted. 

Lard  is  usually  divided  into  two  gi.ades, — namely,  "  choice 


280 


MARKETING  AND  CURING 


lard  "  aiul  ''  prinie  steam  lard."'  'riic  ('liicago  Board  of  Trade 
regulations  state:  '^Choice  lard  to  be  made  fnuii  leaf  and 
trimming-s  only,  either  steam  or  kettle-rendered,  the  manner 
of  rendering-  to  lie  branded  on  the  tierce."  The  same  regulations 
state:  "  Standard  ])rinie  steam  lard  should  be  solely  the  product 
of  the  triiiiiiiings  and  other  fat  ])ai'ts  of  hogs."  This  permits 
the  intestinal  fat  or  fat  from  any  other  parts  to  be  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  ])rime  steam  lard,  whereas  choice  lard  is  made 
from  the  leaf  and  trinnnings  only.  Market  quotations  are  based 
upon  choice  lard. 

Mcfis  pork  and  shorl   rihs  arc   im  longer  jMipnlar  cuts,   and 


Fio.  66. — Diagram  of  Wiltshire  side,  ahowinn  rptnil  dcnlor's  nieltuHl  of  cuttinR,  and  approx- 
imate range  of  values  in  Great  lirilain 

are  only  made  at  a  time  when  there  is  a  surplus  of  hogs  above 
the  number  required  for  tlu^  fresh  meat  trade,  or  when,  owing 
to  speculative  conditions,  the  market  j)rice  of  these  products  is 
relatively  higher  than  the  ]»i-i('e  of  fresh  pork  cuts, 

Thr  "' WiHsliirc  side"  (Figs.  dG  and  G8)  constitutes  the 
main  export  product  of  Canada  and  Denmark,  but  has  never 
attained  any  great  importance  in  the  l"'^nited  States.  It  is 
especially  designed  to  meet  the  reciuircmcnts  of  a  certain  class 
of  English  consumers.  A  Wiltshire  side  consists  of  the  whole 
side  of  the  hog,  less  the  head  and  feet.  The  blade  bone  of  the 
shoulder,  the  neck  bono,  and  the  aitch  bone  are  removed,  the 
top  of  tlie  ribs  sawed  off,  and  thie  side  trimmed  as  smoothly 


A  No.  1  Willsliire  Siilo.  A  Fat  Side. 

l-'ia.  t>8. — Note  superior  length  of  side,  greater  uniformity  of  thickness  of  luj-er  of  fat 
uloug  the  back,  lighter  shoulder,  lighter  ueek,  and  less  cheap  meat  generally  in  the  No.  1 
tftde  than  in  the  fat  side. 


MARKETS  AND  SWIXE  PHODFCTS  283 

as  possible.  The  siik's  are  mild  eured,  and  shipped  to  England 
in  the  green  states  where  they  arc  smoked  before  they  reach  the 
consumer.  The  ty})e  and  weight  «»f  hogs  siiital)le  for  this  pur- 
pose have  already  been  d(^soril)ed. 

One  of  the  gi'eatest  drawbacks  to  the  trade  in  Wiltshire  sides 
is  the  fact  that  the  meat  has  to  l)e  mild  cured,  and,  therefore, 
must  be  consumed  within  a  very  short  tim<\  or  it  will  go  "  off 
flavor."  The  result  is  that  it  is  impossible  to  hold  over 
Wiltshire  sides  when  there  happens  to  be  an  extra  amount 
thrown  upon  tlie  market  at  one  time,  and  prices  often  suffer 
severely  through  this  cause. 

Ham  and  Bacon. — Generally  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  consum]>ti<)n  of  ham  and  bacon  is  steadily  on  the  increase, 
and  large  quantities  of  these  products  are  taken  by  Great 
Britain,  ^lexied.  ( 'nha,  Porto  Tiico,  and  the  Philippines.  Xor- 
'vay.  Sweden,  and  Italy  take  very  heavy,  fat  meats.  The  bulk 
of  other  standard  cuts  and  products  outside  of  tliose  already 
mentioned  are  taken  for  hom(>  consumption. 

Leading  Features. — This  discussion  of  markets  is  anything 
but  exhaustive.  To  attempt  a  description  of  all  the  many 
classes  of  products  placed  upon  the  market  by  different  packers 
would  probably  only  tend  to  confuse  the  reader,  and  all  that 
has  been  attempted  is  to  present,  as  briefly  as  possible,  some  of 
the  leading  features  of  the  trade. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Why  should  feeders  study  and  keep  in  touch  with  the  swine 
markets  ? 

2.  Name  ten  grades  of  market  hogs  in  order. 

3.  Explain  the  market  meanings  of  "  prime,"  "  medium,"  "  common," 
"  poor,"  and  "  rough." 

4.  Oive  the  range  in  weight  of  "heavy"  hogs. 

.T.  \Miv  do  prime  heavy  hogs  often  command  a  premium  over  other 
sorts  ? 


284  MARKETING  AND  CURING 

6.  Give  till-  laiij^c  in  u'ci^^iit  foj-  "  luitchcr  "'  liogs. 

7.  How  aic  tlii'sc  often   subdivided? 

8.  \\  licit    is  tile  quality  of  "  paekinj,' "  hogs? 

9.  Of   what  is  this  class   made  up? 

10.  What  is  the  meaning  of  "mixed  packing"? 

11.  Would  it  be  better  for  the  farmer  to  sort  them? 

12.  What  is  the  market  meaning  of  tlie  term  '•  i)igs"? 

1.3.  What  is  tlie  Chicago  market  meaning  of  "  bacon  "  liogs? 
14.  How  much  are  stags  docked  in  weigiit?     How  may  this  custom  fool 
the  seller? 

1").  How  is  the  meat  from  stags  and  boars  used? 

10.  Wiiat  is  the  market  tendency  toward  weiglit  of  hogs? 

17.  Name  the  tliree  hog  products  mentioned  in  market  reports. 

18.  What  does  the  term  "  pork"  include? 

19.  Wliat  are  the  different  methods  of  packing  it? 

20.  Wliat  are  "ribs"?     ITow  packed? 

21.  Name   the   two   grades   of   lard    and    tell    of   tlie   make-up   of   each 
grade. 

22.  Under    what    circumstances   are   mess   pork    aii<l    short    ril)s   packed 
for  shipment? 

23.  In   what   countries   are  "Wiltshire  sides"   cliiefly   packed?      Where 
shipped? 

24.  Of  what  does  a  Wiltshire  side  consist?     How  prepared? 

25.  Explain  the  cliief  drawback  to  the  trade  in  this  class  of  bacon. 

20.  What    countries    use    large    amounts    of    ham    and    Ijacon  ?      What 
countries  the  fat  meats? 


CHAPTER  XXXL 
CURING  PORK. 

Farmer's  Bulletin  Ibo  of  tlie  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, by  Professor  Andrew  Boss,  gives  much  useful  informa- 
tic»n  regarding  the  curing  of  meats,  and  has  l)een  liberally  drawn 
njxin  in  the  preparation  of  nuiterial  f(ir  this  chapter. 

Cooling. — "  Meat  must  1k'  properly  and  thoroughly  cooled 
to  insure  good  kei'ping  cpuilities  when  cured.  If  salted  before 
the  animal  heat  is  out,  the  shrinkage  of  the  muscles  causes  the 
retention  of  injurious  gases,  giving  an  offensive  odor  to  the 
meat.  Neither  should  meat  be  frozen  when  salted,  as  the  action 
of  the  frost  will  prevent  the  proper  penetration  of  the  salt,  and 
uneven  curing  will  resnlt.  While  the  temperature  cannot  well 
be  controlled  on  the  farm,  it  is  jwssible  to  slaughter  when  the 
weather  is  favorable  to  cooling  the  carcass  before  the  surface 
freezes.  The  most  desirable  temperature  for  cooling  meat  is 
34  to  40  degrees  Fahrenheit.  It  is  important,  also,  that  meat 
l^e  cured  as  soon  as  cooled,  and  while  still  fresh.  Ordinarily, 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  after  slaughtering  will  allow 
sufficif  nt  time  f<tr  cooling." 

Vessels  for  Curing. — "  A  clean,  hard-wood  barrel  is  a  suit- 
able vessel  in  which  to  cure  meat.  A  barrel  made  for  the  pur- 
pose is  best,  but  where  it  cannot  be  had,  a  molasses  or  syrup 
barrel  will  answer.  The  important  point  is  to  have  it  clean  and 
tight  enough  to  prevent  leakage.  A  large  stone  jar  is  the  best 
vessel  that  can  be  had.  A  barrel  or  a  jar  that  has  once  held 
meat  may  be  used  again  and  again  unless  meat  has  spoiled  in  it. 
If  used  repeatedly,  it  will  be  necessary  to  scald  it  out  thoroughly 
each  time  before  packing  with  fresh  meat." 

(285) 


286  MARKETING  AND  CURING 

Brine  Curing  and  Dry  Curing. — *'  liriiic-eiired  meats  aro 
best  for  farm  use,  for  tlie  reason  that  a  suitable  place  for  dry 
curing  is  not  usually  obtainable.  It  is  also  less  trouble  to  pack 
the  meat  in  a  barrel  and  pour  on  a  brine  than  to  go  over  it 
three  or  four  times  to  rub  in  the  salt.  The  brining  method  also 
gives  better  protection  from  insects  and  vermin.  Trouble  is 
sometimes  experienced  in  keeping  brine,  but  if  })ure  water  is 
used  and  directions  followed  in  making  the  brine  (see  next 
paragi-aph),  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  keeping  it  for  a 
reasonable  length  of  time.  During  wann  weathei',  l)rine  slmuld 
be  closely  watched.  If  it  Ix'comes  '  ropy,'  like  syrup,  it  should 
be  boiled  or  a  new  brine  mad(\  A  cool,  moist  cellar  is  the  best 
place  for  brine  curing.  Diy  curing  may  be  done  successfully 
in  a  cellar  also,  though  even  more  moisture  is  needed  to  effect 
a  thorough  cure.  The  cellar  should  be  (bu'k  and  tight  enough, 
to  ])revent  flies  and  vermin  from  damaging  the  meat." 

Plain  Salt  Pork. — "  Rub  each  ])iecc  of  meat  with  fine,  com- 
mon salt  and  ])ack  closely  in  a  barrel.  Let  stand  over  night. 
The  next  day  weigh  out  10  ])ounds  of  salt  and  2  ounces  of 
saltpetre  to  each  100  pounds  of  meat  and  dissolve  in  -i  gallons 
of  boiling  water.  When  cold,  jwur  this  brine  over  the  meat, 
cover,  and  weight  do\\ni  to  keep  it  under  the  brine.  Meat  will 
pack  best  if  cnl.  into  pieces  about  six  inclies  s(]uare.  The  pork 
should  be  kept  in  the  brine  until  used." 

To  ke<']i  the  meat  under  the  brine  use  a  loose-fitting  wooden 
cover,  and  weight  \nth  a  heavy  stone  or  several  vitrified  bricks. 
The.  cover  sluHild  be  made  of  some  hanl  wood,  oak  ]ireferred. 
Such  woods  as  pine  or  ('e(l;ir  will  taint  tlu^  brine. 

Sugar-cured  Hams  and  Bacon.  -'•  Wlien  iIk^  meat  is 
cooled,  nil)  each  piece  with  salt  and  allow  it  to  drain  over- 
night. Then  pack  it  in  a  barrel  with  the  linnis  and  shoulders 
in  the  bottom,  using  the  strips  of  bacon  \o  fill  in  between  or  to 


CURING  PORK  287 

put  on  tlio  top.  Weigh  out  for  each  100  pounds  of  meat  8 
jiounds  of  salt,  2  pounds  of  lu-own  sugar,  and  2  ounces  of 
saltpetre.  Dissolve  all  in  four  gallons  of  water,  and  cover  the 
meat  with  the  brine.  For  summer  use  it  will  be  safer  to  boil 
the  brine  before  using.  In  that  case  it  should  be  thoroughly 
cooled  before  it  is  used.  For  winter  curing  it  is  not  necessary 
to  boil  the  brine.  Bacon  strips  should  remain  in  this  brine 
f(nir  to  six  weeks ;  hams,  six  to  eight  weeks.  This  is  a  standard 
recipe  and  has  given  the  best  of  satisfaction.  Hams  and  bacon 
cured  in  the  spring  will  keep  right  through  the  summer  after 
they  are  smoked." 

The  length  of  time  the  meat  is  kept  in  the  brine  depends 
upon  the  size  of  the  pieces.  A  large  ham  takes  more  time  to 
cnre  than  a  small  one. 

Dry-cured  Pork. — "  For  each  100  pounds  of  meat  weigh 
out  5  pounds  of  salt,  2  pounds  of  granulated  sugar,  and  2 
ounces  of  saltpetre,  and  mix  them  tlioroughly.  Rub  the  meat 
once  every  three  days  with  a  third  of  the  mixture.  While  the 
meat  is  curing  it  is  best  to  have  it  packed  in  a  barrel  or  a  tight 
lx)x.  For  the  sake  of  convenience,  it  is  advisable  to  have  two 
barrels,  and  to  transfer  the  meat  from  one  to  the  other  each 
time  it  is  rubbed.  After  the  last  rubbing  the  meat  should  lie 
in  the  barrel  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  when  it  will  be  cured  and 
ready  to  smoke.  To  cure  nicely  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  cool 
and  rather  moist  place  in  which  to  keep  it.  This  recipe  should 
not  be  used  where  the  meat  must  be  kept  in  a  warm  and  dry 
place,  as  the  preservatives  will  not  penetrate  evenly  and 
uniformly." 

Smoking. — "  The  smoke-house  should  be  eight  or  ten  feet 
high  to  give  the  best  results,  and  of  a  size  suited  to  the  amount 
of  meat  likely  to  Ix*  smoked.  One  0  by  S  feet  will  be  large 
enough  for  ordinary  farm  use.      Ample  ventilation   should  be 


288  MARKETING  AND  CURING 

providecl,  to  carry  off  the  wanii  air  in  order  to  prevent  over- 
heating the  meat.  Small  openings  under  the  eaves  or  a  chimney 
in  the  roof  will  Ik?  snfficient,  if  arranged  so  as  to  be  easily 
controlled.  A  fire-pot  outside  of  the  house  witli  a  flue  through 
which  the  smoke  may  be  conducted  to  the  meat  chamber  gives 
the  l>est  conditions  for  smoking.  When  this  cannot  well  be 
iirranged,  a  fire  may  be  built  on  the  floor  of  the  house  and  the 
meat  shielded  by  a  sheet  of  metal.  Where  the  meat  can  be 
hung  six  or  seven  feet  above  the  fire,  this  precaution  n,eed  not 
be  taken.  The  construction  should  Ix^  such  as  to  allow  the  smoke 
to  pass  u])  freeh'  over  the  meat  and  out  of  the  house,  though 
rapid  circulation  is  at  the  expense  of  fuel." 

"•  Brick  or  stone  houses  are  best,  though  the  first  cost  is 
greater  than  if  they  are  built  of  lumber.  Large  drj^-goods  boxes, 
and  even  barrels,  may  be  made  to  serve  as  smoke-houses  where 
only  small  amounts  of  meat  are  to  be  smoked,  but  a  permanent 
place  is  much  more  satisf actor)'." 

"  The  best  fuel  for  smoking  meats  is  green  hickory  or 
maple  wood  smothered  with  sawdust  of  the  same  material. 
Hard  wood  of  any  kind  is  preferable  to  soft  wood.  Corn-cobs 
are  the  best  substitute  for  hard  wood,  and  may  \ye  used  if 
desired." 

"  Meat  tliat  is  to  be  smoked  should  l)e  removed  from  the 
brino  two  or  three  days  before  being  ])nt  in  the  smoke-house. 
Washing  the  ni(>at  in  tepid  water  and  scrubbing  clean  with  a 
brush  is  a  good  ])ractice.  The  ]ueces  should  then  be  hung  up 
to  drain  for  a  day  or  two.  \\lien  drained,  they  may  be  hung 
in  the  smoke-house.  All  should  l)e  suspended  below  the 
ventilators,  and  shonld  hang  so  that  no  two  pieces  come  in 
contact." 

"A  slow  fire  niav  ihcn  Im"  started,  wanning  uj»  the  meat 
gradually.     During  the  winter  months  in  cold  climates  it  is  best 


CURING  I^ORK  289 

to  keep  the  tire  going  eoiitimiallv  until  the  smoking  is  coni- 
l»leto,  holding  the  temperature  at  about  the  same  point.  During 
the  spring  months  and  in  the  summer,  a  light  fire  may  be 
started  every  second  or  tliird  day  for  a  couple  of  weeks,  the 
meat  being  allowed  to  hang  in  the  smoke-house  until  sufficiently 
colored.  When  the  fire  is  kept  going  steadily  twenty-four  to 
thirty-six  hours  will  be  required  to  finish  one  lot  of  meat. 
Smoke  will  not  penetrate  frozen  meat.  As  soon  as  smoked 
sufficiently  the  meat  should  be  cooled  by  opening  the  ventilators 
or  doors.    When  hard  and  firm  it  may  be  packed  away." 

Liquid  Smoke. — Those  who  wish  to  obtain  the  flavor  of  smoke 
without  going  to  the  trouble  of  smoking  the  meat  in  the  ordinary 
way,  or  who  have  not  the  necessary  equipment  for  smoking,  may 
obtain  practically  the  same  result  by  the  use  of  liquid  smoke, 
or  smoke  compound.  This  liquid  may  be  applied  by  means  of 
a  ])rush.  It  should  be  painted  on  the  surface  of  the  meat  very 
lightly,  and,  as  each  application  dries,  a  fresh  coat  should  be 
painted  on  for  two  or  three  applications. 

Smoke  Flavoring  Powder. — This  powder  is  used  for  giving 
a  smoky  flavor  to  sausages,  one  ounce  of  powder  being  used  to 
ten  pounds  of  sausage  meat.  The  skins  of  the  sausages  may  be 
colored  by  means  of  "  smoke  dye."  There  is  nothing  injurious 
in  these  smoke  products. 

Keeping  Smoked  Meats. — "  A  dry,  cool  cellar  or  an  attic 
with  froo  circulation  will  be  a  satisfactory  place  for  smoked 
meats  at  all  seasons,  if  it  is  kept  dark  and  flies  are  excluded." 

"  If  to  be  held  only  a  short  time,  hams  and  bacon  will  need 
only  to  be  hung  out  separately  without  covering.  For  longer 
keeping  it  will  be  necessary  to  wrap  them  first  in  paper,  and 
then  in  burlaps,  canvas,  or  muslin,  and  bury  them  in  a  grain 
bin  (or  in  wood  ashes)  or  other  suitable  place,  the  object  being 
to  gain  a  uniform  temperature  and  to  keep  away  insects.  For 
absolute  safc-keei)ing  for  an  indefinite  period  of  time,  it  is 
19 


290  MAlllvETlNG  AND  CUEING 

essential  that  the  meat  he  thoroughly  cured.  After  it  is  smoked 
and  has  become  drv  on  the  surface,  it  slionld  ho  wrappi-d  in 
parchment  paper  or  old  newspapers.  Then  inclose  in  heavy 
muslin  or  canvas,  and  cover  with  yellow  wash  or  ordinars'  lime 
whitewash,  glue  being  added  to  the  whitewash.  Hang  each 
piece  out  so  that  it  does  not  come  in  contact  with  other  pieces. 
Do  not  stack  in  piles." 

Trying  Out  Lard. — "  Only  the  best  of  fat  should  be  u.^ed 
for  choice  lard.  Leaf  fat  is  the  best.  The  back  strip  of  the 
side  also  makes  nice  lard,  as  do  the  ham,  shoulder,  and  neck 
trimmings.  Gut  fat  sliould  never  Ix^  mixed  Avitli  tlio  loaf  and 
back  fat.  It  makes  a  strong-smelling  lard  and  should  be  kept 
separate.  All  scraps  of  lean  meat  should  be  cut  out  of  the  fat 
before  trying  out,  as  they  are  very  likely  to  stick  to  the  kettle 
and  get  scorched,  giving  an  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  lard.  When 
preparing  the  fat  for  trying,  cut  it  into  pieces  from  1  to  lYo 
inches  square.  They  should  be  nearly  eciual  in  size,  so  that  they 
will  try  out  in  about  the  same  time.  Fill  a  clean  kettle  about 
three-fourths  full  and  put  in  a  (juart  of  water,  or,  if  con- 
venient, a  (juart  of  hot  lard.  One  or  the  other  is  necessary  to 
prevent  the  fat  from  burning  Ix^fore  the  heat  is  sufficient  to 
bring  out  tlie  grease.  Keep  the  kettle  over  a  moderate  fire 
until  the  cracklings  are  bro^vn  and  light  enough  to  float.  Fre- 
(picnt  stirring  is  necessary  to  prevent  burning.  When  done 
remove  from  the  stove  and  allow  to  cool  slightly,  and  then  strain 
through  a  niusliu  cloth  into  a  suitable  jar  or  crock.  Stirring 
whiles  the  hird  is  cooling  tends  to  wliiten  it  and  make  it 
smoother.  A  (iu;irt<'r  of  a  pound  of  saleratus  (baking  soda) 
added  to  each  100  ])ounds  of  fat  has  a  like  effect." 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  directions  for  coolinf;  fresli  meats  before  curinf». 

2.  ^^^lat  are  suitaMe  vessels  for  meat  euririfr?     How  prepared  for  use? 

3.  Compare  brine  curinfj  with  dry  curing  for  farm  use. 


CURING  PORK  291 


4.  Ti'll   of  the  clangers  associated   witli   its  use. 

5.  Give  directions  for  treatment  of  plain  salt  pork. 

6.  Tell  of  tlie  treatment  of  cooled  meat  to  produce  supar-cured  hams 
and  bacon. 

7.  Give  tlie  treatment  for  jiroducinp  dry-cured  pork. 

8.  Describe  tbe  essentials   of  a   pood   smoke-liouse. 
n.  Tell  bow  to  carrA'  on  tbe  smokinp  process. 

10.  TIow  sbould  smoked  meats  be  kept? 

11.  ^^^lat  fats  are  best  for  lard? 

12.  Tell  bow  it  is  tried  out. 


PART  VII 

BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 
BUILDINGS. 

The  question  of  buildings  for  swine  is  such  a  complicated 
one  that  it  seems  almost  a  hopeless  task  to  attempt  a  discussion 
of  the  subject.  Almost  every  piggery  that  is  built  possesses 
certain  features  peculiar  to  itself  and  rendered  necessary  by 
the  circumstances  which  it  is  intended  to  meet.  All  that  can 
be  attempted  is  to  discuss  the  most  desirable  features  of  a 
piggeiy,  for  the  general  guidance  of  those  who  wish  to  build, 
but  every  man  will  have  to  adapt  his  building  to  his  own 
peculiar  requirements. 

The  most  imjxirtant  qualities  of  a  piggery  are  dryness, 
ventilation,  light,  freedom  from  draughts,  reasonable  warmth, 
and  convenience. 

Dryness. — Di-^mess  is  closely  associated  with  ventilation, 
but  is  also  intluenced  by  the  material  of  which  the  building  is 
constructed.  Good  results  cannot  be  obtained  in  a  damp  pen, 
and  dripping  walls  are  a  i)retty  sure  indication  of  impending 
disaster.  Stone  and  cement  walls  are  very  cold  in  winter  and 
chill  the  air  of  the  pen,  causing  it  to  deposit  its  moisture  upon 
their  surface.  In  a  short  time  the  wall  becomes  quite  w^et,  and 
tro\d)le  is  stored  up  for  the  pigs.  A  hollow  cement  or  hollow 
tile  wall  is  much  less  objectionable  than  a  solid  one.  but  there  is 
little  doubt  that  wooden  Avails  constructed  in  such  a  way  as  to 
form  a  complete  dead-air  space  inside  are  the  best. 

The  floors  and  foundation  may  be  constructed  of  cement 
concrete,  and  the  foundation  may  rise  about  two  feet  above  tlie 
surface  of  the  floor.     This  will  presence  the  wood  of  which  the 

(295) 


296  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

walls  are  eonstnicted  and  is  imt  likely  t<>  prove  at  all  injurious 
to  the  pigs. 

A  very  good  wall  can  1k'  ina<le  ))y  setting  twu-by-four 
scantlings  on  end.  and  first  boarding  inside  and  out  with  rough 
lumber.  This  rough  lumber  should  then  be  covered  with  tarred 
paper,  and  then  the  walls  should  be  tightly  boarded  up  with 
matched  lumber.  Tf  ])referred,  the  outside  of  the  pen  may  l)e 
clapboarded.  Smooth,  matched  lumlx^r  is  best  for  the  inside 
of  the  pen.     Patent  building  ])aper  may  l)e  used  outside. 

If  it  is  thought  desirable  to  have  a  loft  over  the  ]>eii,  the 
ceiling  can  be  iiuide  of  poles,  placed  a  few  inches  apai-t,  and 
well  covered  with  straw.  The  straw  absorbs  moisture  and  helps 
to  keep  the  pen  dry.  Where  this  is  done,  the  straw  should  Ix" 
renewed  at  least  every  year,  otherwise  it  becomes  a  harbor  for 
dust  and  disease  germs. 

Ventilation. — Thorough  ventilation  is  a  great  help  in  ])re- 
serving  dryness,  but  it  is  a  difhcult  thing  to  secure  in  a  piggery 
without  nnduly  lowering  tlie  temperature.  It  is  an  aid  to 
ventilation  to  provide  a  large  air  space;  in  other  words,  to 
have  a  high  ceiling.  The  tendency  at  ])resent  is  to  do.  away 
with  the  common  loft  over  the  piggerv,  and  to  have  the  space 
al>ove  the  pigs  extend  to  the  roof.  This  gives  more  air  space 
and  makes  ventilation  a  sim])ler  ]U'oblem.  but  it  necessitates 
lining  tlie  under  siile  of  the  i"af"t(  vs  with  matched  bnnber  in 
order  to  ])revent  the  pen  from  becoming  too  cold. 

SJnifl  ]'cii/ ilaiors. — The  ;'(lmis-ioii  of  fresh  air  can  l)e 
])rovided  for  by  constructing  shafts  in  tli(>  walls  at  intervals 
of  fifteen  or  twenty  fcvi.  These  shafts  should  not  b(>  more 
tlian  al>out  four  by  six  inches  in  siz(\  and  should  o|)en  (Mitside 
Tiear  tlie  ground,  and  inside  at  the  ceiling.  Provision  'should 
be  made  for  closing,  or  ]iartial  closing,  of  these  intakes  when 
cold  air  is  admitted  too  rapidly.     The  outlets  may  consist  of 


BUILDINGS 


297 


shafts  about  eight  inches  square,  starting  near  tlie  floor  and 
extending  through  the  nwf,  and  equipped  on  the  top  with  a 
device  for  preventing  the  wind  fn>ni  l>lt>\viiig  down  tlie  shafts. 
(Fig.  60.) 

Chimiu'i/  and  Pipe. — Tf  a  feed  cooker  is  use<l,  it  couhl  be 
utilized  to  great   advantage   in   assisting  ventilation.      If  the 


Fio  69  — The  King  system  of  ventilation  as  shown  for  a  dairy  barn  or  hog-house.  The 
air  outlet  should  start  near  the  floor  and  extend  through  the  roof.  The  inlet  for  air  into 
the  room  is  near  the  ceiling,  but  should  start  outside  well  above  the  ground.  In  cold 
weather,  windows  are  for  light,  not  for  ventilation,  when  the  King  system  is  in  use. 


building  is  not  a  verv  long  one,  the  chimney  niav  be  constructed 
at  the  opposite  end  of  the  buihling  from  the  feed  cooker,  and 
the  pipe  from  the  feed  cooker  run  the  whole  length  of  the 
building  before  it  enters  tlie  chimney.  In  a  long  building  the 
chimney  may  be  placed  about  the  centre,  so  as  not  to  have  too 
great  length  of  stove-pipe.  The  heat  from  the  stove-pipe  has  a 
wonderful  influence  in  aiding  the  circulation  of  air  in  the 
pen,   as   well   as   modifying  the  temperature   and   helping   to 


298  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

keep  the  air  dry.  An  extra  oiK'ning  made  in  the  clnnmey  shaft 
near  the  floor  will  sen'e  to  draw  out  iiinch  foul  air. 

Ill  fact,  where  winter  litters  are  raised  in  large  pens,  some 
helpful  device  like  this  is  absolutely  necessar\\ 

Light. — Light,  especially  sunlight,  has  a  wonderful  influ- 
ence in  promoting  health.  So  far  as  possible,  the  windows 
should  be  on  the  south  side  of  the  building,  because  the  south 
side  gets  the  most  sun  and  is  least  exposed  to  cold  winds. 

Draughts. — "While  ventilation  is  necessary,  draughts  are 
extremely  injurious,  and  their  prevention  should  be  kept  in 
view  when  building. 

Warmth. — Warnitli  is  a  good  thing,  but  it  should  not  be 
secured  at  the  expense  of  ventilation,  A  somewhat  cold  pen, 
well  ventilated  but  free  from  draughts,  is  preferable  to  a  warm 
pen  where  the  air  is  dam]i  and  foul,  and  the  pigs  will  suffer 
less  discomfort  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  Very  young 
pigs  require  warmer  (]uarters  than  older  ones,  and  when  a  sow 
farrows  in  winter,  special  ])ains  should  lx»  taken  to  secure 
warmth  and  free<lom  from  draughts.  If  she  is  in  a  large 
piggery,  it  is  oftf^i  a  liel])  to  lay  poles  across  the  tops  of  the 
partitions  over  the  bed  an<l  then  cover  these  poles  with  straw. 


PLANS  OF  PIGGERIES. 

The  first  plan  wiiich  is  given  here  (Fig.  70)  is  taken  from 
a  ])iggery  on  the  fanii  of  Mr.  J.  E.  Brethour,  Burford,  Ontario. 
Its  construction  is  com])aratively  cheaji,  and  it  jiossesses  inanv 
desirable  features.  It  is  capable  of  many  modifications,  and  a 
careful  study  of  the  plan  will  be  hel])ful  to  those  who  intend  to 
build.     Of  course,  the  building  can  l)e  made  any  length  desired. 

Size. — The  building  is  30  by  100  feet,  outside  measurement. 
A  cement  wall,  8  inches  thick,  rises  three  feet  ab<ive  the  floor. 


B  S   1J 


OB    SH 


3-::: 

-    a 


B  -■ 


a  :^ 
•-  c 
S  3 


ol 


51 

5  ;i" 


B  O 

£.1 


p -' — '       ^ — ^T a 


o<4 


t      ^0  ^    ^ 


7?  0 


300  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

On  top  of  this  wall  tlio  frame  is  built.  The  walls  are  Imilt  of 
two-by-four  inch  studdinp:,  boarded  on  the  outside  with  cheap 
lumber,  covered  with  buildiiio-  paper,  and  tightly  clapboarded 
over  the  paper.  On  the  inside^  the  walls  are  lined  with  matched 
lumber  so  as  to  fonu  a  dead  air  sjiace  inside  the  wall.  The 
lining  also  extends  over  the  lower  side  of  the  rafters,  giving 
a  dead  air  space  to  the  roof  as  well  as  the  walls. 

Cross  Section. — From  the  cross  section  (Fig.  71)  it  will 
be  seen  that  tlie  total  height  of  the  w^all  on  the  north  side  is 
1 1  feet,  and  of  that  on  the  south  side  is  8  feet.  The  roof  has 
the  'same  pitch  on  both  sides,  so  that  there  is  a  drop  of  three 
ftet  from  one  section  of  the  roof  to  the  other  at  the  centre  of 
the  building.  Tn  this  space  windows  are  inserted,  to  throw 
light  and  a  certain  amount  of  sunshine  into  the  row  of  pens 
along  the  north  side  of  the  building.  These  windows  are  hinged 
at  tlie  bottom  and  can  be  opened  at  any  angle,  according  to  the 
requirements  of  ventilation.  A  ratchet  device,  similar  to  that 
used  for  opening  the  ventilators  in  greenhouses,  w^ould  be  very 
convenient  for  this  purpose. 

Drainage. — The  floor  is  cement.  Cement  is  so  durable  and 
so  easily  cleaned  tliat  it  seems  to  be  about  the  only  satisfactory 
floor.  The  part  A  B  (see  Fig.  71)  is  six  inches  higher  than 
C  T).  There  is  a  fall  of  one  and  one-half  inches  from  A  towards 
li,  aii<l  a  fall  of  three  inches  from  D  towards  C.  Thus  all  the 
drainage  is  towards  C ,  the  lowest  point,  and  the  Ix^d,  Ix^ing  on 
top  of  A  B,  is  always  dry.  There  should  be  a  fall  from  one 
end  of  the  building  to  the  other  along  the  line  at  C ,  so  that  the 
drainage  would  be  towards  one  end  of  the  building,  and  a  suit- 
able outlet  could  l>e  provided. 

Partitions. — Tliere  is  a  partition  three  and  a  half  feet  high 
between  the  IxkI  and  the  feeding  pen,  and  the  opening  from  the 
bed  to  the  feeding  pen  is  two  and  a  half  feet  wide.     The  par- 


BUILDINGS 


301 


No)rtk     S I  <L  e 


302  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

tition  shelters  from  draughts  and  also  ccuiKnnizes  bedding  by 
holding  the  straw  in  plac<'.  Th('  other  partitions  are  four  feet 
high.  The  partition  next  to  the  feeding  ])assagc  is  made  of 
woven  wire  fencing  of  Xo.  0  coil  steel  \\'ires,  two  indies  apart 
at  the  bottom,  and  grading  to  about  three  inches  apart  near  the 
top.  The  wire  partition  is  set  in  alx)ut  two  and  a  lialf  inches 
from  the  side  of  the  trougli  next  to  the  feed  passage,  thus 
allowing  room  to  pour  feed  into  the  troughs. 

The  troughs  are  cement,  and  are  eight  inches  high  uext  to 
the  feed  passage,  four  inches  high  next  to  the  feeding  pen,  and 
ten  inches  wide,  inside  measurement. 

The  feed  passage,  which  is  five  feet  wide,  is  four  inches 
lower  than  the  feeding  pen.  This  is  merelv  a  device  to  show 
the  pigs  to  better  advantage. 

Doors. — The  purpose  of  the  doors  in  the  partitions  between 
the  pens  is  easily  understood.  They  can  be  swung  back,  closing 
the  pigs  in  the  back  apartment  and  leaving  a  continnous  pas- 
sage for  cleaning  out  the  pens.  The  bedding  is  also  taken  in 
and  distributed  from  this  passage.  These  doors  are  also  used 
in  moving  pigs  from  one  pen  to  another,  since  there  are  no 
doors  from  the  pens  into  the  feed  passage.  The  absence  of 
doors  from  the  pens  into  the  feed  passage  is  a  somewhat  in- 
convenient feature  of  the  building,  but  is  hard  to  avoid  where 
a  woven  wire  partition  is  used.  The  woven  wire  partition, 
however,  is  more  sanitary  than  wood,  and  gives  a  much  l>etter 
view  of  the  pigs. 

Floors. — Tt  will  b(>  noticed  that  the  sleeping  quarters  have 
cement  floors.  When  bedding  is  ])lentiful  this  may  give  no 
trouble,  but  it  woidd  be  safer  to  place  a  portable  wooden  plat- 
form on  the  cement. 

The  floor  may  be  kept  warm  and  free  from  the  ascending  soil 
moisture  by  placing  a  layer  of  tar  paper  or  tar  paint  l^etweQn  tho 


BUILDINGS  303 

layers  of  concrete  when  the  tloor  is  constructed.  The  rougli  part 
may  be  painted  with  two  coats  of  tar.  and  then  the  top  layer  of 
cement  one  inch  thick  or  more  is  jdaced  on  tlie  tar.  The  tar 
is  a  perfect  insulator  from  soil  moisture,  ^^^len  sows  are  lying 
on  such  a  sleeping  bed,  it  becomes  warm  and  retains  its  heat 
much  as  soapstone  does. 

The  roof  is  supported  by  four  lines  of  posts  to  which  tlie 
partitions  are  fastened.  Each  row  carries  a  line  of  plates 
which   support  the  rafters. 

Light. — There  are  six  windows,  each  five  feet  long  and  two 
and  a  half  feet  high,  in  the  south  wall,  and  the  same  number 
in  the  roof,  placed  as  already  described.  The  north  wall  has 
only  two  windows. 

Not  Good  Farrowing  Pens. — The  pens  as  described  are 
not  suitable  for  farrowdng  pens.  As  stated  in  another  place, 
it  is  better  to  have  the  sows  in  a  building  away  from  other 
pigs,  especially  during  cold  weather,  w^hen  the  building  must 
be  kept  pretty  well  closed  up.  The  air  of  a  piggery  wliere  a 
large  number  of  pigs  are  kept  does  not  agree  well  with  little 
pigs.  If  a  part  of  the  large  piggery  is  to  be  used  for  farrowing 
]iens,  it  shoidd  be  closely  partitioned  off  from  the  rest  of  the 
building.  The  same  style  of  pen  could  be  made  suitable  for 
sows  with  little  pigs  by  making  the  sleeping  apartments  two 
feet  wider,  thus  giving  beds  eight  feet  square. 

The  absence  of  a  loft  for  storing  straw  will  be  a  strong 
ol>joction  in  the  eyes  of  many.  Tlie  ventilation  of  the  build- 
ing, however,  and  the  health  of  the  animals  are  of  vastly  greater 
importance  than  the  inconvenience  occasioned  by  the  absence 
of  a  loft.  It  is  generally  possible  to  locate  the  building  so  as 
to  make  it  comparatively  easy  to  obtain  straw  for  bedding.  If 
it  is  not  possible  to  have  the  building  situated  with  one  end 
adjoining  a  straw  shed,  a  loft  for  straw  could  be  constructed 


304 


BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 


over   that    part   of   the   biiildiiii;;   used    for   farrowing-  ])cns   and 
feed  room. 

Study  Plans. — It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  give  plans 
which  would  likely  meet  all  requirements,  and  possibly  the 
plan  submitted  could  not  be  adopted  in  its  entirety  by  many 

f,utk  SUt. 


Ltt.ti'^fCl.tt 


"p.-'-E 


Ou.td.oo  r 


9'-l'  «  ;'■ 


]i-L'E 


Yar 


4LS 


f-6"K    7-0' 


]i-f  E 


•  4'x    J- 


]3^-E 


St  A 
lO'-  «"  <  7'-o" 


..... ...  ..■^TTni>-' 


rr-f', 


••A 

0: 


fee  a.   Tiijs  A  J  t .  f- i'  wide. 


JJL 


/^tc4     o 


I-:; 1 


ret, 


••' 


FiQ.  72. — Plan  of  small  piKgery.  d,  door;  w,  ■window;  p,  low  partition  betwpon  bod  and 
fending  place;  <//,  doors  whifh  form  part  of  partitions  when  in  position,  hut  which  can  be 
8WUIIK  back,  shuttiiiK  the  pigs  in  the  part  occupied  by  the  bed,  when  the  pen  is  to  be 
cU'aned,  or  pigs  moved  from  one  pen  to  another,  or  taken  to  the  loading  chute;  tml,  door 
through  which  man\ire  is  taken;  lil,  door  leading  to  loading  chute  (a  sliding  door  w  hich 
slides  upwards  out  of  the  way  would  be  con\'enient  for  closing  this  opening);  <' (/,  entrance 
door.  Dotted  line  shows  line  of  drainage,  and  fall  may  be  made  towards  whichever  end  is 
most  convenient. 

breeders.  At  the  same  time,  the  plan  submitted  possesses  so 
numy  excellent  features  that  it  is  presented  with  the  hope  that 
it  will  prove  helpful  to  those  interested  in  the  housing  of  swine. 

It  is  suggested  that  students  and  breeders  of  swine  draw 
and  study  many  plans  before  actually  building. 

Plan   of   Small   Piggery.    (Fig.    72.) — A  good   feature  of 


BUILDINGS  305. 

tliis  bnildini*"  is  tJic  phu-inu'  of  llic^  pons  and  (»nt-<l(>(>r  yards  (»n 
the  sdnth  side  <>f  tlu'  bnilding-.  The  main  windows  are  placed 
nil  the  south  side  also,  thus  letting  the  sunli<2;lit  freely  into  tlie 
pens.  The  great  objection  to  this  plan  is  the  fact  tliat  it  is 
not  economical  of  space,  because  the  same  passage  could  be 
made  to  serve  another  row  of  pens  on  the  opposite  side.  If 
desired,  the  plan  could  1x3  changed  very  easily  to  put  a  row  of 
pens  on  each  side  of  the  paJssage  by  simply  making  the  building 
about  twelve  feet  wider,  or  thirty-two  feet  wide.  If  this  were 
done,  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  a  feed  room,  because  the 
bins  in  the  passage  would  interfere  with  the  feeding.  The 
passage  could  be  made  narrower,  however,  if  the  feed  bins  were 
removed. 

Beds  'should  be  raised  several  inches  above  drainage  gutter. 

Foundation,  floors,  and  troughs  are  recommended  to  be 
made  of  cement,  but  walls  of  wood,  as  in  Mr.  Brethour's 
Piggerv\ 

The  bed  floors  should  be  insulated  with  a  tar  layer  as  already- 
described. 

If  bedding  is  plentiful,  an  overlay  of  boards  or  planks 
need  not  be  placed  on  the  part  occupied  by  the  bed.  If  an 
overlay  is  used  it  should  be  made  so  that  it  can  be  raised  up 
when  desired,  to  admit  of  cleaning  and  disinfection. 

The  ceiling  should  lie  alx)ut  eight  feet  from  the  floor,  and 
a  loft  may  be  put  over  the  whole  building  with  straw  chutc^s 
leading  to  each  bed. 

The  ont-door  yards  should  be  cemented,  otherwise  they  ho- 
come  verv  filthy. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  arrangement  of  the  doors  (d2) 
leading  from  each  pen  into  the  passage.     The  post  at  the  end 
of  the  partition  is  set  back  from  line  of  passage.     In  this  way, 
trough  room  is  economized. 
20 


30G  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

A  SOUTHERN  PIGGERY. 

Bulletin  150  of  the  Maryland  Experiment  Station  gives  plans 
for  a  piggery  adapted  to  Southern  conditions.  Drawings  and 
description  of  this  piggery  are  given  herewith.  (Figs.  73,  74, 
75.) 

"  Each  pen  is  made  up  of  three  parts  made  by  different  levels 
of  the  floor.  The  central  part  is  a  manure  pit  which  is  ten  inches 
lower  than  the  rest  of  the  floor.  The  south  division  of  the  pen  is 
a  feeding  floor  with  a  trough  across  the  end  while  the  north 
division  is  the  sleeping  floor  or  bed.  The  entire  floor  of  the 
building  is  cement  except  the  feed  bins  and  the  sleeping  floor. 

"  The  frame  is  made  f)f  the  following  pieces : 

Sills    G"  X  G"  Plates      4"  X  6" 

llain    posts     G"  X  G"  Purlines     2"  X  8" 

Intermediate    posts    3"  X  4"  Kafters     2"  X  6" 

Braces 3"  X  4"  Joists    4"  X  6" 

"  This  frame  is  made  heavy  in  order  to  support  the  slate 
roof.  The  floor  in  the  beds  is  made  of  oak  planks  2"  by  12". 
The  partitions  between  pens,  including  the  gates,  are  1"  by  2I/2" 
slats  2"  apart  nailed  on  2"  by  4"  cross-pieces.  Under  each  gate 
is  a  movable  2"  by  12"  oak  plank  as  partition  in  manure  pit. 
The  sides  of  the  building  are  made  of  a  single  thickness  of  %" 
by  5"  German  or  Novelty  siding.  The  front  is  boarded  up 
five  feet  above  foundation  and  covered  with  inch-mesh  wire 
from  this  height  to  the  roof.     The  troughs  are  of  iron. 

"  It  may  be  well  to  enumerate  a  few  of  the  special  points  in 
construction  an<l  some  of  the  advantages  of  this  piggery: 

"  Jt  is  faced  to  the  south  so  as  to  permit  the  rays  of  the  sun 
to  shine  upon  the  beds  of  the  pigs  at  the  extreme  rear  end  of  the 
pen  in  the  winter  season,  and  also  (the  slope  of  the  roof  is  such 
as)  to  give  shade  in  that  portion  in  summer. 

"  The  lattice  construction  between  the  pens,  at  the  ends  and 
roar,  admits  of  a  free  circulation  of  air  in  warm  weather. 

"  The  location  of  the  manure  pit  in  the  center  and  below  the 
level  of  the  sleeping  and  feeding  floors  with  all  drainage  towards 


BUILDINGS 


307 


1,2-    U 


/ 


"T  T-  «  U   ^   Iv 


Fe  e  ei 


t  >v  J 


4  It-         I    r»-ou.^li.      \-ff'ou.4'K       Xf-raUHtc 


To.  s  s-  Q~  ^  e 


U 


re  e  cL         73i  i^  S 


Fis.  73. 


Fig.  75. 

„i^  ^,\?'  "3~G[ound  plan  of  Maryland  piggery.  Note  gates,  which,  when  swung  back. 
Close  the  p^gs  in  the  beds  and  allow  a  cart  to  be  driven  right  through  the  pen  for  cleaning  out 
f  ,  k'°-  or  ■"°*?i^*''^*'°?  °^  •'^^"'■>'""''  P'KBery.  Note  difiference  in  floor  levels.  The 
leed  bin  13  2  feet  wide  at  the  bottom.  2  feet  (i  inche.s  at  widest  part,  and  2  feet  10  inches 
nign  next  to  passage. 

.v...  ^'°'  '^p— Front  elevation  of  Maryland  piggery.  Jt  js  boarded  to  a  height  of  5  feet  from 
the  ({round,  and  the  remaining  space  left  open,  - 


308  BUILX)INGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

it,  aids  materially  in  inaintainiiiii'  a  pi(ij)or  sanitary  condition. 
The  manure  pit  is  concreted,  which  enahles  the  saving  of  all 
liquid  excrements. 

'"  The  swinging  gates  close  the  pigs  into  their  beds,  facilitate 
the  changing  of  pigs  from  pen  to  pen  and  allow  the  easy  removal 
of  manure. 

"  The  general  plan  can  be  used  and  the  dimensions  and  ma- 
terials uioditied  so  as  to  meet  the  demands  of  circumstances. 

"  The  (|uostion  most  dltcn  asked  al)out  this  piggery  is  whether 
it  is  warm  enough.  This  can  be  answered  in  the  affirmative 
except  for  very  cold  winter  wea  her.  Wlien  a  sheltered  location 
cannot  be  chosen,  sufficient  proteciion  can  be  furnished  by  some 
kind  of  movable  or  swinging  frames  to  close  the  beds  during  ex- 
tremely cold  nights.  Another  (jucstion  often  asked  is  whether 
the  cement  floor  is  conducive  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  the 
pigs.  The  cement  floor  is  satisfactoi-y  in  tliis  rc^spect  for  a  large 
part  of  the  year,  and,  during  winter,  the  feeding  floor  is  the  only 
part  not  covered  heavily  with  bedding. 

"  Provision  is  made  in  the  plans  of  this  piggery  for  outlets 
at  the  north  ends  of  pens  to  yards  for  exercise.  The  yard  is  a 
valuable  accessory  to  a  building  of  this  nature,  and  in  choosing 
the  site  care  should  be  exercised  to  allow  space  for  yards." 

PORTAULE   PENS. 

The  accompanying  sketches  (Figs.  TO  and  77)  show  a  very 
cheap  and  easily  constructed  pen  suitable  for  winter  quarters 
for  breeding  sows.  The  pen  is  sixteen  feet  long  by  eight  feet 
wide.  It  is  seven  feet  high  in  front  and  three  and  a  half  feet 
high  at  the  rear.  Tt  is  boarded  with  cheap  hnnber,  but  all 
cracks  are  securely  battened.  It  should  be  practically  wind  and 
rain  proof.  The  opening  is  at  one  corner,  and  the  pen  should 
be  set  with  the  opening  towards  the  south.  A  door  is  not 
necessary.  Plenty  of  bedding  should  be  supplied  and  the  pen 
should  be  banked  up  outside  with  fresh  horse  manure  to  a 


BUILDINGS 


309 


deptli  of  about  two  foot,  in  ordor  to  provout  drauiilits  about 
the  floor.  This  method  of  housiuir  sows  is  better  than  close 
confinement  in  warm  pens,  and  will  be  found  to  answer  very 


Ofoe-Ki 


2-  4 


FiQ.  76. — Front  view  of  portable  pen. 


Fig.  77. — I-^nd  view  ot  portiible  pen. 


•well  when  other  means  to  provide  shelter  and  exercise  are  not 
available. 

The  A-shaped  Pen. — The  acconipanyinc:  sketches  (Figs.  78 
and  TO)   show  a  convenient  portable  pen  which  may  be  used 


310  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 


Fio.  78. —  End  view  of  A-sh:ipcd  house. 


w 

- 

- 

- 

- 

'  1 
r  .'- 



... 



-•y 

'.t.:- 

.... 

■ 

•-^ 

licfc-    /T«.«.»i.er- 

Fio.  79. — Side  view  of  A-shaped  house. 


BUILDINGS  311 

for  a  sow  and  her  littor,  or  as  a  shelter  for  tw^  or  three  sows. 
The  description  is  taken  from  Bulletin  !;).">  of  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station.  The  pen  is  construct<'(l  l)y  nailinji^  inch 
boards  on  six  joists,  each  2  bv  4  inches,  and  7  feet  S  inches 
long,  for  the  floor.  Beneath  the  joists  are  nailed  three  stringers, 
each  2  by  6  inches,  and  8  feet  long,  which  serve  as  runners 
fur  moving  the  house.  Xcxt,  a  plate  piece  2  by  8  inches, 
and  !•  feet  4  inches  long,  is  spiked  to  the  ends  of  the  joists, 
liaving  the  bottom  of  the  2"  by  8"  even  with  the  bottom 
of  the  joists,  which  will  allow  it  to  project  3  inches  above  the 
floor.  It  will  also  extend  out  7  inches  at  each  end.  This 
2"  by  8''  forms  a  plate  to  which  the  rafters  and  roof  boards 
are  nailed.  The  7-inch  extension's  of  the  plate  at  the  ends 
support  the  cornice,  and  protect  the  lower  corners  of  the  roof, 
which  otherwise  would  be  easily  split  off.  The  2"  by  8"  planks, 
besides  strengthening  the  house,  raise  the  rafters  and  the  roof 
boards  nailed  to  them,  at  least  three  inches  off  the  floor,  and 
thereby  increase  the  floor  space  and  capacity  of  the  house. 

The  following  lumber  is  necessary  to  construct  the  A-shaped 
pen  illustrated  here : 

Nine  pieces.  1"  X  12"  X  16'  and  110.  G.  battens  1(3'  long  for  roof. 

Five  pieces  1"  X  12"  X  14'  for  ends. 

One  piece  2"  X  4"  X  10'  for  ridge. 

Two  pieces  2"  X  8"  X  10'  for  plates. 

Seven  pieces  2"  X  4"  X  16'   for  rafters,   and  braces  in  frame. 

Three  pieces  2"  X  6"  X  8'  for   runners. 

Four  pieces,  1"  X  12"  X  16'  for  flooring. 

•  If  the  house  is  to  be  used  in  cold  weather,  a  door  will  be 
necessary,  which  may  be  hung  on  hinges  or  made  to  slide  up 
out  of  the  way.  The  doorway  is  shown  in  the  drawing,  two 
feet  by  two  feet  six  inches.  In  the  case  of  very  large  sows,  it 
would  be  better  to  make  the  door  three  feet  high. 

The  dotted  lines  in  the  drawings  indicate  the  scantlings 
which  constitute  the  framework  of  the  pen. 


312  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

Tlie  ventilator  is  luadf  hy  ciittini;-  tlic  iij)jK'r  ends  from  two 
roof  boards,  o])posite  one  another.  Theii  2"  by  2"  pieces  are 
nailed  <ni  l<>|>  of  the  baltens  on  eacli  side  of  tlie  opening,  meeting 
at  the  top,  and  lM)ards  are  nailed  on  top  of  these  strips  on  each 
side  of  the  roof.  The  upper  ends  of  these  boards  meet  at  the 
top,  and  the  lower  ends  come  an  inch  or  two  past  the  lower  sides 
of  the  opening. 

It  is  recommended  to  have  a  door  at  the  back  of  the  build- 
ing, similar  to  the  one  in  front,  for  purposes  of  ventilation  in 
hot  weallicr;  also  a  'small  ojiening  near  the  peak  at  the  rear 
of  llic  liiiililing,  wliicli  could  he^  covered  with  a  slide,  aiul  used 
to  assist  vciitilat  i<iii   under  some  circumstances. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  runners  are  likely  to  decay, 
some  prefer  to  have  them  not  fastened  to  the  building,  so  that 
they  can  he  renewed  conveniently.  In  the  plan  'shown,  the 
runners  are  fastened  to  the  structure,  but  they  could  be  attached 
by  means  of  bolts,  so  that  it  would  not  bo  difficult  to  renew 
them.     An  a])]dieation  of  tar  would  save  them  many  years. 

The  Shed  Roof  Pen.— (Wisconsin  Bulletin  153.)  The  pen 
shown  in  the  illustration  is  six  feet  four  inches  wide  and  eight 
feet  long.  In  the  rear,  it  is  provided  with  a  door,  the  same  size 
as  the  lower  front  door,  which  is  placed  diagonally  opposite,  so 
that  by  opening  all  the  doors,  it  makes  a  cool  house  in  summer. 
By  closing  both  lower  doors  and  o})ening  the  upper  front  door 
for  ventilation,  it  makes  a  warm  house  for  cool  weather.  The 
upper  front  door  can  be  fitted  with  a  wooden  ratchet,  by  means 
of  which  it  can  be  held  in  any  position  desired. 

To  build  the  pen,  construct  the  frame  8'  0"  long,  by  6'  4" 
wide,  on  seven  2"  by  4"  joists  six  feet  long.  Xail  two  pieces  of 
2"  by  4"  scantling  across  the  ends  of  the  joists,  wdiicli  will  make 
the  foundation  for  the  floor  S'  0"  by  0'  4".  Beneath  the 
frame  are  nailed  three  2"  by  4"  pieces  which  serve  as  runners 
for  moving  the  building.     The  pen  illustrated  here  is  six  feet 


BUILDINGS 

r'—  4* 


313 


I^=T 


It  —  7'/i     Ve 


QUss 


|t> 

( —   z'    ■■ )l 


o 


Fig.  so. — Front  view  of  shed-roof  house. 


TIJ 
4-^"        - 

Fig.  81. — End  view  of  shed-roof  house 


314 


BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 


high  in  front  and  three  feet  high  at  the  rear.  (Figs.  80  and  SI.) 
The  following  lumber  is  necessary  to  construct  the  pen : 

Six  pieces  2"  X  4"  X  IC 
Five  pieces  2"  X  4"  X12'. 
Two  pieces  2"  X  4"  X  14'  for  frame. 
Tliroe  pieces   1"  X  12"  X  10',   rough,   for   floor. 

Eleven  jiieces  1"  X  12"  X  12'   (dressed  on  one  side)   for  sides  and  ends. 
Five  pieces  1"  X  12"  X  10'  (dressed  on  one  side)  for  roof. 
Four  pieces  O.  G.  battens  10',  and  eleven  pieces  O.  G.  battens  12'  long    for 
roof  and  sides. 


Courtesy  of  National  Manufacturintj  Company,  Des  Moines,  Io«a. 

Fio.  82. — A  type  of  galvanized  metal  portable  pen.  In  hot  weather  the  lower  half  of 
the  side  can  be  raised  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  increasing  the  shade  and  admitting  fresh 
air.     In  cold  weather  the  side  can  be  lowered  to  close  the  opening. 

If  a  shingled  roof  is  desired,  the  following  material  is  neces- 
sary for  roofing : 

One  piece  1"  X  12"  X  14'. 

Five  pieces  1"  X  0"  X  14'   (dressed  on  one  side). 

Ihree  bunches  of  shingles.     (Figs.  82  and  83.) 

Portable  Cold-weather  Farrowing  Pen. — ^Tho  farrowing 
pen  shown  in  the  ilhistrations  (Figs.  84,  85)  is  the  one  re- 
ferred to  when  discussing  the  management  of  the  i^ow.  The 
pen  is  8  feet  scpiarc  and  five  feet  fmm  the  gnmnd  to  the  eaves. 
The  hase,  the  corner  i)ost.s,  and  the  two  plates  are  made  of 
4"  1)V  4"  scantlinc:,  and  the  remainder  of  tho  frame  is  made 


BUILDINGS 


315 


of  2"  bv  4"  scantliiij»:.     The  dotted  lines  in  the  drawings  show 
the  position  of  the  scantlings  comprising  the  frame. 

An  opening  should  be  made  in  the  gable  at  the  end  farthest 
from  the  ventilator.  Then,  if  a  few  strips  are  laid  across  the 
plates,  straw  can  be  shoved  in  through  the  opening,  tilling  in 
the  peak  of  the  roof,  and  making  the  building  warmer.  As 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  the  ventilator  shaft  is  run  down  to 
near  the  floor  to  draw  out  the  foul  air  and  moisture. 


»        •■•.•-; 

Fig.  83. — Attachment    for   shed-roof   portable   pen    to   give   outdoor  shade.      (Wisronsin 

Bulletin  242.) 

The  roof  may  be  shingled,  or  made  of  boards  with  battens 
over  the  cracks.  The  battens  are  not  shown  in  the  drawings, 
except  in  the  end  view  of  the  roof. 

Outside,  the  pen  is  single  boarded  with  battens  over  the 
cracks.  Inside,  tarred  paper  may  be  put  on  the  studding  and 
then  tightly  boarded,  but  a  better  job  will  be  made  by  first 
covering  the  studding  with  rough  lumber,  covering  this  with 
tarred  paper,  and  then  tightly  lioarding  on  the  inside. 

The  window  comprises  three  12"  by  14"  panes  set  in  a 
sash,  which  should  l)e  hinged  at  the  top  so  that  it  will  swing 
inwards.  In  hot  weather  it  can  be  swung  up  to  the  ceiling  and 
fastened  there,  allowing  a  good  circulation  of  air. 

The  pen  may  be  built  on  runners,  or  temporary  skids  may 


316 


BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 


be  provided  when  it  is  necessary  to  move  the  pen.  In  very 
cold  weather,  a  lighted  lantern  hung  in  the  pen  will  make  it 
quite  comfortable  for  new-born  pigs.  By  the  time  the  pigs 
are  twenty-four  hours  old,  the  pen  will  need  no  artificial  heat. 


■--f 

.  -  pj- 

— U- 

■  ir  ■ " 

•I 
1' 
II 
II 
|i 

-    -  •  'It    *   '  •    • 

i 

• 

•  1 
1  1 

•  • 

1  j 

^ 

1 

i 

iri 

i: 

!i 

11 
1' 
1 1 

ii 

•  • 
1  • 

Ii! 
!*• 

1  t 

1 

1 

!| 
II 

ij 

1 

t 
1 

1 



..-.IL 

V" 

A   14-' 

-J-L- 

_ _L. 

?'-  o" 

Flo    84  — Km!  view  of  furrowing  pen. 


A  i)eii  such  as  this  will  be  found  much  safer  for  winter  litters 
than  a  large  building  where  other  pigs  are  kept. 

The  vai'idus  ])laiis  wliich  Iiavc  been  submitted  are  capable 
of  many  inoditications,  and  the  man  gifted  with  a  little  in- 
genuity nuiy  be  able  to  improve  u})on  them  so  far  as  his  con- 
ditions are  concerned.     They  are  presented  in  the  hope  that 


BUILDINGS 


317 


they  may  prove  suggestive  of  ideas  to  the  man  who  intends  to 
build,  and  each  man  must  decide  for  himself  what  modifications 
would  render  them  most  suitable  to  his  circumstances. 


z"  J<.  V " 


I  : 


rv  I 
!  -' 

!  ;w 

:  ;  I 


,L__il.! 


Ln: 


/i"x/v" 


V"  >x  ^- 


VK 


/•-     ?"  I 


Fic.  85. — Front  view  of  farrowing  pen. 

Bulletin  152  of  the  Iowa  Station  is  an  excellent  treatise  upon 
••ortaLle  houses  for  swine.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  Iowa 
Station  found  the  temperature  in  metal  pens  to  vary  much  moro 
than  that  in    -^oden  pens. 


318  BUILDINGS,  SANITATIOX,  AND  DISEASES 

REVIEW, 

1.  Tell  of  the  necessity  of  dryness  for  swine  quarters. 

2.  Give  several  advantages  of  having  good  ventilation  witliout  draft. 

3.  Describe  the  intake  pipe  of  a  King  ventilation  system. 

4.  Describe  the  outlet  shaft  of  the  King  ventilation  system. 

5.  Tell  how  cooker  ])ii)es  and  chimneys  may  be  used  to  aid  ventilation, 
fi.  \\']iat  are  the  advantages  of  direct  sunlight  in  a  piggery? 

7.  Give   several   good    features   of   the   piggery    such   as   that   built  by 
Mr.  Brethour. 

8.  Tell  how  to  insulate  the  concrete  floor  of  the  sleeping  bed. 

9.  Give  two  important  advantages  of  such  insulation. 

10.  Give  several  criticisms  of  the  Brethour  piggery. 

11.  Give  the  good  ])oints  and  any  bad  points  you  may  discover  in  the 
plan  of  the  "  small  piggery." 

12.  What  are  advantages  of  portable  pens? 

13    Give  the  general  plan  of  the  portable  pen  you  would  prefer. 

14.  Tell  how  to  make  the  portable  pen  warm  enough  for  farrowing  in 
very  cold  weather. 

15.  How  are  portable  pens  most  easily  moved  to  a  new  location? 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
SANITATION. 

The  hog  is  a  difficult  animal  to  treat  when  attacked  by 
disease,  and  hence  the  breeder  must  adopt  every  means  within 
his  power  to  prevent  disease  from  entering  the  herd.  One  can 
never  be  too  careful  in  this  matter,  and  the  proverb  "  An  ounce 
of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure  "  is  especially  applicable 
in  the  management  of  swine. 

Cleanliness. — Filth  is  an  excellent  harbor  and  breeding 
ground  for  disease  germs.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the 
pens  cleaned  frequently,  and  the  pens  should  be  so  constructed 
that  there  are  no  places  for  filth  to  accumulate  where  it  cannot 
be  cleaned  out.  Water-tight  floors  with  as  few  cracks  and 
corners  as  possible,  together  with  adequate  drainage,  are  im- 
portant in  a  piggery. 

Disinfection. — Every  swine  breeder  or  feeder  should 
acquire  the  habit  of  using  disinfectants  freely.  There  are 
numerous  proprietary-  or  patent  disinfectants  upon  the  market, 
such  as  Chloronaptholeum,  Zenoleum,  etc.,  which  give  good 
satisfaction.  Before  purchasing  an  unknown  patent  disinfectant, 
the  purchaser  should  insist  upon  the  seller  furnishing  results  of 
independent  laboratory  tests  showing  the  value  of  the  prepara- 
tion. A  mixture  of  five  parts  of  crude  carbolic  acid  to  one 
hundred  parts  of  water  also  makes  a  good  disinfectant  for  pens. 
Chloride  of  lime  is  also  good,  and  is  especially  recommended  by 
some  for  pens  where  cholera  has  existed.  Five  or  six  ounces  of 
chloride  of  lime  to  a  gallon  of  water  makes  an  effective  dis- 
infectant. 

In  case  of  disease,  all  bedding  and  manure  should  be 
removed  and  burned.     Loose  boards  or  planks  should  also  be 

(319) 


320  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

removed,  and  all  adhering  filth  scraped  off  the  floors,  par- 
titions, and  troughs.  It  is  of  little  use  applying  a  disinfectant 
on  top  of  a  coating  of  filth  which  may  conceal  and  i)rotect 
millions  of  disease  genns.  A  good  spray  pump  is  best  for 
applying  the  disinfectant,  so  as  to  force  the  liquid  into  every 
crack  and  cranny,  and  it  is  not  wise  to  be  economical  in  the 
use  of  the  disinfectant.  Every  part  of  the  pen  should  be 
thoroughly  saturated  with  the  solution. 

If  there  are  small  outside  yards  attached  to  the  piggerj', 
they  should  bo  floorcd  with  concrete,  and  then  they  can  be  dis- 
infected in  the  same  way  as  the  interior  of  the  building.  If 
they  are  not  floored  it  is  almost  impossible  to  disinfect  tl\em 
thoroughly,  and  they  are  a  constant  menace  to  the  health  of 
the  animals. 

Pasture  lots  and  large  paddocks  or  feed  lots  are  more 
difficult  to  deal  with.  Liberal  liming  and  plowing  up  is  about 
all  that  can  be  done.  In  case  of  some  diseases,  such  as  cholera, 
it  is  safer  to  remove  the  hogs  to  other  feed  lots  or  pastures  for 
at  least  several  months.  Of  course,  the  lots  could  Ix'  disinfected 
by  saturating  the  surface  soil  with  a  good  disinfectant,  but  it 
would  be  an  expensive  operation.  (Fig.  9'6.) 

Systematic  disinfection  of  the  premises  should  not  be  neg- 
lected even  if  there  is  no  disease.  A  small  spray  pump  and  a 
constant  su]iply  of  disinfectant  to  bo  used  at  frequent  intervals 
about  the  buildings  constitute  an  inij)ortant  part  of  the  equip- 
ment of  a  piggery.  At  least  once  a  year,  a  general  house- 
cleaning  is  advi'^able,  and  whitewashing  the  walls,  ceiling,  and 
partitions  with  lime  and  crude  carbolic  acid  will  go  a  long 
way  towards  keeping  the  building  sanitary.  A  good  pint  of 
crude  carbolic  acid  to  three  gallons  of  whitewash  will  answer 
the  purpose. 


SANITATION. 


321 


Quarantine. — Provisiou  should  be  made  in  large  herds  for 
quarters  where  hogs  that  have  been  purchased,  or  brought 
home  from  shows,  can  be  kept  entirely  separate  from  the  rest 
of  the  herd  for  at  least  three  weeks.  The  plan  of  using  portable 
pens  and  dividing  the  herd  up  into  small  groups  has  a  marked 
advantage  over  keeping  the  hogs  in  a  large  piggery,  in  case  a 
contagious  disease  breaks  out.  With  the-  portable  pens,  all 
hogs  are  not  exposed,  and  it  is  a  simpler  matter  to  effect  a 
quarantine. 

Ilog  cholera  is  the  most  dangerous  contagious  disease  that 


Flo.  86. — A  form  of  brood  housp  lor  sow  and  pies.     j,:i~ii\-  nm 
to  prevent  disease. 


■lonn  place 


the  swine  breeder  has  to  contend  with.  In  case  of  an  outbreak 
of  either  cholera  or  swine  plague  in  the  neighborhood,  a  most 
rigid  quarantine  should  be  put  into  force.  There  should  be  no 
visiting  back  and  forth  by  either  man  or  beast  between  infected 
farms  and  those  which  are  clear,  because  the  vims  which  causes 
the  disease  may  be  easily  carried  on  the  boots  of  the  persons 
or  the  feet  of  animals.  Even  dogs  have  Ix^en  known  to  carry 
the  disease  from  one  farm  to  another.  Dogs  should  be  tied  up 
until  an  outbreak  of  this  disease  is  under  control. 

On  the  farm  where  disease  breaks  out,  healthy  animals 
should  be  separated  at  once  from  diseased  animals,  and  differ- 
ent attendants  should  feed  the  two  lots,  each  attendant  keeping 
21 


324 


BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 


also  be  applied  by  means  of  a  good  spray  pump,  wbieh  forces' 
the  dip  through  the  hair  and  into  all  crevices.  It  may  also  be 
applied  by  means  of  a  broom,  using  a  pail  to  hold  the  dip.     By 


Fig.  88. — Hog  dipping  vat  recommended  by  the  Wisconsin  Siaiion.     (Bulletin  2J2.) 


Courtesy  Tennessee  Depaitment  of  Auriculttire 

Fig.  89. — Concrete  hog  wallow. 

bnishing  the  dip  into  the  hair  the  job  can  be  done  thoroughly. 

The  cement  dipping  vat  illustrated  herewith  is  the  kind 

recommended  by  tlie  Wisconsin  Station  (Bulletin  242).     It  is 

provided  with  a  chute  at  each  end,  and  there  is  a  return  drain 


SANITATION  325 

apron  where  the  hogs  emerge  from  the  tank.  By  keeping  the 
hogs  a  short  time  on  this  incline  after  they  come  ont  of  the 
tank,  a  great  deal  of  dip  can  be  saved  from  waste.     (Fig.  88.) 

The  tank  should  contain  enough  lukewarm  water,  to  which 
the  dip  has  been  added,  to  thoroughly  immerse  the  hogs,  the  quan- 
tity varying  with  the  size  of  the  hogs.  If  crude  oil  is  used,  12  to 
15  gallons  to  a  tank  of  water  is  sufficient.  The  hogs  should  work 
their  wav  through  the  dip  by  their  rear  legs,  with  their  noses  just 
out  of  the  water. 

When  lice  have  been  in  a  building  for  some  time,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  treat  the  building  in  practically  the  same  way 
as  recommended  for  disinfection,  the  disinfectants  being  also 
good  insecticides. 

In  treating  for  lice,  one  application  of  insecticides  is  seldom 
sufficient,  because  there  will  be  many  eggs  to  hatch  out  to  give 
a  new  brood.  A  second  treatment,  about  a  week  after  the  first, 
should  always  be  given,  and  a  third  treatment  would  not  be 
out  of  place. 

Hog  Wallows. — Hogs  suflPer  from  heat,  and  enjoy  wallowing 
in  water  or  mud.  The  ordinary  wallow  becomes  very  filthy  and 
is  a  good  breeding  ground  for  disease.  Cement  hog  wallows, 
located  in  a  shady  place,  and  constnictcd  so  as  to  contain  eight  or 
ten  inches  of  water,  are  sanitary  and  add  much  to  the  comfort 
of  the  pig  in  hot  summer  w^eather.  Crude  oil  or  coal  tar  dip  may 
be  added  to  the  water  in  the  wallow,  and  thus  help  to  keep  down 
lice,  and  to  promote  sanitary  conditions.  (Fig.  89.) 

REVIEW. 

1.  How  may  cleanliness  be  secured  in  a  pipperv? 

2.  Mention  several  disinfectants  and  tell  liow  to  use  them. 

3.  Tell  of  the  necessary  steps  in  securinfi  purity  of  quarters  after  a 
disease  among  the  hogs. 

4.  Mention  methods  of  purifying  yards  and  pastures. 


328 


BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 


Courtesy  Tennessee  Department  o(  Aj;ricultiire. 

FiQ.  90. — Ulcers  (large  intestine),  chronie  form. 


Cuurlcsy   lcUIn-■^SL■L•  Dc|iarliic<;nt  of  Ayric.iUiirc. 

Fig.  91. — "Button  ulcers"  (large  intestine),  chronic  form. 


Courtesy    I 


b'la.  'J2. — Group  of  cholera  pigs. 


COMMON  DISEASES  OF  SWINE 


329 


siderable  time,  jiossibly  several  weeks  or  even  two  or  three 
iiioiitlis.  Often  the  pig  becomes  a  complete  wreck,  and  death 
at  last  occurs. 

Treatment. — "When  a  hog  once  contracts  the  disease,  little 
can  be  done  in  the  way  of  treatment.  Preventive  measures 
are  the  only  effective  means  for  fighting  this  disease.  In  case 
the  disease  should  ho  found  in  a  lierd,  it  is  safer  to  divide  the 
herd  u])  into  small  gi'oups,  keeping  hogs  wliich  have  been  ex- 


Courtesy  Tennessee  1  >ep;irtrnent  ^t  A^^'ncuiturt-. 

Fig.  93. — Injecting  serum  behind  shoulder  (large  hog). 

posed  to  the  disease  se])arate  from  tho.se  which  liave  not.  Dis- 
eased carcasses  should  In-  burned,  and  thorough  disinfection  of 
the  premises  and  the  animals  should  1k'  made.  Tlie  disease 
enters  the  system  tlirough  the  stomach,  and,  therefore,  care 
should  be  exercised  at  all  times  in  providing  clean  water  and 
feed.  The  importance  of  quarantine,  isolation,  and  disin- 
fection, and  methods  of  conducting  the  same,  have  been  dealt 
with  under  "  Sanitation/'  which  see. 


332  BUIIJDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

allowed  to  rnu  with  the  sick  auiiiials  aloiii;-  with  a  nuiiil)cr 
of  untreated  aiiinuils,  which  served  as  controls,  and  the 
success  following  vaccination  can  therefore  l)e  attributed 
to  the  action  of  the  serum.  In  the  herds  where  hog  chol- 
era a])peared  subsequent  to  treatment,  all  of  the  vaccinated 
hogs  remained  well,  while  more  than  <!.")  per  cent  of  the 
checks  (untreated  hogs)  died.  In  the  herds  which  had  been 
exposed,  but  were  apparently  well  at  the  time  of  the  treat- 
ment, 4  per  cent  of  the  treated  animals  died,  while  approx- 
imately 90  per  cent  of  the  checks  succumbed.  In  the  lierds 
where  disease  existed  at  the  time  of  treatment,  and  where 
we  did  not  anticipate  very  great  success,  13  per  cent  of  the 
treated  animals  were  lost,  whereas  75  per  cent  of  the  checks 
died. 

"  These  successful  field  trials,  confirming  as  they  did 
numerous  tests  carried  out  under  experimental  conditions,  have 
convinced  us  of  the  efiiciency  of  this  method  of  dealing  with 
hog  cholera,  and,  though  improvements  will  undoubtedly  be 
made  in  many  of  the  details  of  producing  the  serum,  the  method 
is  believed  to  be  now  in  such  condition  as  to  make  the  practical 
use  of  it  entirely  feasible.'' 

This  plan  of  combating  hog  cholera  to  be  successful  must 
be  carried  out  under  the  direction  of  skilled  veterinarians,  and 
hence  little  can  be  accomplished  unless  the  State  comes  to  the 
aid  of  the  farmer,  supplies  the  serum  at  cost,  and  provides 
veterinarians  to  make  the  injections  and  to  supervise  the 
work. 

Three  Methods  of  Vaccinating. —  (Kansas  Bulletin  182.) 
(1)  "  The  first  method  is  to  use  the  serum  alone.  In  this 
method  there  is  simply  injected  into  the  tissues  of  the  hog  a 
dose  of  the  anti-hog-cholera  serum,  which  makes  the  hog  im- 
nuine  against  cholera  for  a  time  varying  from  a  few  w'eeks  to 
several  months." 


COMMON  DISEASES  OF  SWINE  333 

(2)  "  In  this  method  there  is  injected  at  the  same  time  with 
the  serum,  but  in  a  different  phice,  a  small  amount  of  viru- 
lent blood,  or  blood  taken  from  a  hog  very  sick  with  cholera." 
This  method  is  known  as  the  simidlaneuus  method,  and 
renders  a  hog  immune  for  life.  It  is  counted  a  satisfactory 
method  to  use  in  a  herd  before  it  has  become  infected,  but 
great  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  use  too  much  of  the 
virulent  blood,  lest  the  hog  be  given  a  severe  form  of  the 
disease. 

(8)  "  This  method  is  known  as  the  combination  method. 
The  hog  is  first  vaccinated  with  the  serum  alone,  and  ten  days 
later  vaccinated  with  the  simultaneous  method."  This  method 
was  originated  by  the  author  of  the  bulletin,  Dr.  Schoeuleber, 
and  the  claim  is  made  by  him  that  this  is  the  safest  and  most 
satisfactory  method  that  can  be  employed  in  an  exposed 
herd. 

The  bulletin  referred  to  above  gives  full  directions  for 
vaccinating  and  handling  the  herd,  but  recommends  that  none 
but  skilled  veterinarians  perform  the  operation. 

From  very  extensive  tests  which  he  has  made,  Dr.  Schoen- 
leber  draws  the  following  conclusions:  "  Vaccination  should 
be  done  while  the  animals  are  still  healthy,  but  if  cholera 
is  present,  a  large  per  cent  is  saved  through  the  use  of  the 
serum,  and  the  earlier  it  is  utjed  in  an  outbreak  the  greater  the 
per  cent  saved.*' 

SWINE    PLAGUE. 

Swine  plague  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  hog  cholera,  and 
often  accompanies  the  latter  disease.  It  is  an  infectious  disease 
caused  by  a  germ,  and  the  s^-mptoms  are  similar  to  those  of 
cholera.     As  a  rule,  the  lungs  and  pleural  membrane  are  in- 


33G  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

striking  contrast  an-  \\iv  liogs  slaughtered  at  tliree  cities  in  one 
of  tlie  leadinii-  dairv  states,  where  there  is  a  large  number  of 
co-operative  creameries  and  the  raw  skim-milk  is  fed." 

''  Buyers  for  jiacking-liouses  are  learning  from  bittrr  cx- 
jxTJcnce  to  avoid  sections  of  certain  states,  and  two  finus  will 
not  buy  hogs  from  one  state  known  to  be  batlly  infected.  Tn 
fact,  many  of  the  smaller  jiackers  in  the  Central  West  buy 
subject  to  ])ost-m(>rtem  inspection,  as  a  measure  of  self-pro- 
tection." 

"  It  is  known  beyond  all  doubt  that  the  majority  of  tul)er- 
culous  hogs  are  productnl  by  the  following  causes: 

"  1.  Feeding  raw  milk  and  slime  from  creameries. 

"  2.  Feeding  hand-sejiarated  milk  from  tuberculous  cows. 

"  3.  Feeding  Ix'liind  tuberculous  cattle. 

"  4.  Feeding  tubci-culous  carcasses. 

"  5.  Feeding  slaughter-house  offal. 

"  The  danger  of  feeding  hogs  behind  tuberculous  cattle  lies 
in  the  fact  that  such  cattle  discharge  enormous  nundn'rs  of 
tuljerculosis  germs  in  their  faeces," 

Symptoms  Obscure. — The  rjuotations  given  show  the  im- 
portance of  tiiis  disease,  and  the  need  for  the  farmer  to  be  on 
liis  guard.  It  is  a  contagious  disease  and  must  be  treiited  as 
such.  The  sym])toms  are  not  well  marked,  and  a  hog  may  be 
badly  diseased  and  show  ])raclically  no  clinical  symjifoms.  If 
the  lungs  are  affet'ted,  the  liog  usually  has  a  cougli,  and,  if  the 
digestive  organs  are  badly  affected,  there  is  generally  indiges- 
tion, and  general  lack  of  thrift;  but  similar  symptoms  may 
shf)W  themselves  with  otln  r  diseases,  and  it  rcipiires  a  great 
deal  of  experience  to  diagnose  the  disease^  with  c(>rtainty. 

Treatment  is  entirely  ]>reventive.  Since  the  disease  is 
usually  communicated  to  hogs  through  their  feed,  it  is  neces- 


COMMON  DISEASES  OF  SWINE  337 

sary  to  make  certain  that  their  feed  contains  no  germs.  In 
dair\'  districts,  the  practice  of  sterilizing  skim-milk,  butter- 
milk, and  whey  is  to  be  commended,  because  daiiy  by-products 
constitute  the  main  medium  for  transmitting  the  disease  to 
hogs.  Sanitar\'  surroundings,  pure  feed,  and  fresh  air  are  the 
feeder's  main  safeguards  in  connection  with  this  dangerous 
disease. 

INDIGESTION. 

Indigestion  in  various  forms  is  caused  by  mistakes  in  feed- 
ing. Over-feeding  and  lack  of  exercise  will  sometimes  bring 
on  the  trouble,  or  the  feeding  of  swill  containing  injurious 
substances,  such  as  washing  powders,  is  apt  to  cause  derange- 
ment. In  the  acute  form  it  causes  the  animal  a  good  deal  of 
pain,  causing  it  to  arch  its  back  and  give  general  evidences  of 
suffering.  In  such  cases  it  is  well  to  have  a  veterinarian 
prescribe  for  the  trouble. 

The  chronic  form  sometimes  follows  an  attack  of  acute 
indigestion,  causing  an  unthrifty,  stunted  condition  of  the 
animal.  Perhaps  the  best  home  remedy  is  a  dose  of  castor  oil, 
followed  by  careful  feeding  upon  easily  digested  feeds.  If  the 
trouble  is  not  relieved,  a  veterinarian  should  be  consulted. 

CONSTIPATION. 

As  mentioned  in  another  place,  constipation  is  most  disas- 
trous in  the  case  of  pregnant  sows,  and  is  the  result  of  too  little 
exercise  and  too  much  concentrated  feed.  In  cases  of  constipa- 
tion, perhaps  the  simplest  remedy  is  to  give  from  two  to  four 
ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil  once  daily  in  the  slop  of  a  mature 
animal.  If  this  is  not  effective,  give  four  ounces  of  Epsom 
salts.  Give  exercise  and  supply  laxative  feeds,  such  as  bran, 
oil  meal,  or  ground  flax-seed,  roots  or  alfalfa. 
22 


338  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

SCOURS. 

Dr.  Alexander  (Wisconsin  Bulletin  184)  writes  as  follows: 
*'  When  young  nursing  pigs  begin  to  scour,  it  is  evident  that 
the  milk  of  tlie  sow  is  disagreeing  with  them,  and  immediate 
attention,  tlierefore,  should  be  directed  towards  improving  her 
ration.  Most  often  the  trouble  comes  from  overfeeding  on  corn, 
or  other  rich  feed,  just  after  farrowing,  and  pigs  of  fat,  flabbv. 
pampered,  cross,  ner\'ous,  constipated  sows  are  most  apt  to 
suffer.  Sudden  changes  of  feed,  or  feeding  sour  or  decom- 
posing slop,  or  feed  from  dirty  troughs  or  sour  swill-barrels, 
also  tend  to  cause  diarrhoea  either  in  nursing  pigs  or  those  that 
have  been  weaned,  and  all  such  causes  should  be  prevented  or 
removed. 

"  To  correct  scouring  in  nursing  pigs,  give  the  sow  15  to 
20  grains  sulphat<'  of  iron  (copperas)  in  her  slop  night  and 
morning,  and  if  necessary  slightly  increase  the  dose  until 
eflFective.  Lime  water  may,  Avith  advantage,  be  freely  mixed 
with  the  slop  as  a  preventive  when  there  is  a  tendency  to 
derangement,  or  after  the  trouble  has  been  checked,  and  it  is 
also  an  excellent  corrective  for  weaned  pigs  showing  a  tend- 
ency to  scour  on  slop  or  skim-milk.  Where  little  pigs  are 
scouring  severely,  each  may  with  advantage  be  given  a  raw 
egff  and  ;"»  to  10  grains  of  subnitrate  of  bismuth  twice  daily,  in 
addition  to  changing  the  feed  of  the  sow  and  mixing  copperas 
in  her  slop.  Tn  eases  which  do  not  promptly  respond  to  treat- 
ment, success  may  follow  tlie  administration  of  a  dose  of  castor 
oil  shaken  up  in  milk.  Tii  all  cases  it  is  important  to  set  right 
all  errors  in  diet  and  sanitation,  and  to  provide  the  pigs  with 
dr^',  sunny,  well-ventilated  quarters.  The  derangement  is 
always  most  apt  to  occur,  and  sure  to  prove  disastrous,  among 
pigs  kept  in  unsanitary  cuuditions." 


COMMON   DISEASES  OF  SWINE  339 

INFECTIOUS   SORE   MOUTH. 

This  disease  is  quite  common  in  small  pigs  from  a  few  days 
to  several  weeks  old.  It  is  caused  by  a  germ.  Filthy  quarters 
and  damp,  muddy  yards  favor  the  development  of  the  disease. 

One  of  the  first  symptoms  is  a  disinclination  to  suck  on  the 
part  of  nursing  pigs,  or  a  falling  off  in  appetite  in  older  pigs. 
The  lining  membrane  of  the  mouth  becomes  inflamed,  and 
sometimes  the  snout  and  lips  become  swollen.  Later,  ulcers 
form,  oft^n  involving  the  lips  and  snout. 

Dr.  Craig  recommends  the  following  treatment : 

"  As  soon  as  the  disease  breaks  out  in  a  litter,  both  the 
mother  and  pigs  should  be  removed  from  the  herd.  The  affected 
pigs  can  be  treated  by  dipping  head  foremost  into  a  four 
per  cent  water  solution  of  some  reliable  tar  disinfectant ;  or 
permanganate  of  potassium,  one  ounce  to  a  gallon  of  water,  can 
be  used.  A  more  thorough  way  to  treat  them  is  to  wash  out 
the  mouth  by  injecting  the  solution  directly  into  it  with  a 
syringe.  It  is  advisable  to  use  this  method  wherever  prac- 
ticable, and  especially  in  advanced  cases.  It  is  also  advisable 
to  clean  the  ulcerated  parts  by  scraping  away  the  dead  tissue 
and  rubbing  the  surface  of  tlie  ulcer  with  lunar  caustic.  The 
above  treatment  should  be  repeated  twice  a  day  in  advanced 
cases,  and  in  mild  ones  once  a  day.  It  should  be  kept  up  for  as 
long  a  time  as  necessary.  It  is  usually  more  economical  to 
kill  the  badly  diseased  pigs  than  it  is  to  treat  them,  as  they  are 
apt  to  scatter  the  disease  and  bc^come  badly  stunted  and 
deformed." 

If  treatment  is  aditjitcd  upon  rhe  Hrst  appearance  of  trouble, 
the  disease  is  not  too  difficult  to  cure, 

THUMPS. 

This  disease  is  caused  by  a  disordered  digestion  which 
irritates  the  nerves  connected  with  the  diaphragm,  causing  sud- 


340  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

den  contractions  of  the  diaphrat^in  at  irrciiiilar  intervals.  The 
contractions  or  spasms  of  the  diaphrag^n  cause  a  jerking  move- 
ment of  the  Hank,  which  is  a  characteristic  symptom  of  the 
disease.  The  ])ig'  l)ecomes  nntliriftv  and  stunted,  and  very 
young  pigs  are  likely  to  succumb  or  to  become  practically 
worthless. 

Too  liberal  a  supply  of  feed  and  too  little  exercise  will 
often  bring  on  the  trouble.  Young  ])igs  often  contract  the 
disease  before  they  are  weaned  if  they  have  a  good  mother  and 
are  not  given  much  exercise,  and  it  is  usually  the  finest  and 
fattest  pig  in  the  litter  wliicli  is  th(^  first  to  go  wrong. 

Treatment  is  mainly  preventive,  and  hence  the  necessity 
for  providing  exercise  for  young  pigs,  especially  if  their  mother 
is  a  lilx^ral  milker  and  the  pigs  become  very  fat.  Judicious 
feeding  and  exercise  will  entirely  prevent  the  disease.  If  a 
case  occurs,  it  is  a  signal  that  a  change  in  methods  should  be 
made  at  once.  Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  exercise  for 
young  pigs  in  cold  weather,  and  some  recommend  shutting  them 
in  a  pen  away  from  the  mother  for  an  hour  or  so  twice  a  day. 
As  a  rule,  this  plan  will  stimulate  the  laziest  of  them  to  take 
considerable  exercise. 

INFLAMMATION   OF  THE   TDDER. 

Heavy  milkers  are  most  liable  to  have  this  trouble.  Whatever 
the  cause,  the  disease  calls  for  prompt  treatment.  Dr.  R.  A. 
Craig,  in  his  excellent  Iwok,  "  Diseases  of  Swine,"  recommends 
the  following  treatment: 

"  Milking  the  sow's  udder  two  or  three  times  a  day  will 
usually  relieve  its  congested  condition.  A  physic  of  Epsom 
salts  should  be  given  every  other  day,  and  a  sloppy  diet  fed. 

In  case  the  udder  becomes  inflamed,  it  should  Ix?  kneaded 
gently  with  the  fingers,  and  the  following  ointment  applied 
daily:    Extract  of  belladonna  and  gum  camphor  (one  dram  of 


CX)MMON  DISEASES  OP  SWINE  341 

each),  and   vaseline    (three  ounces).     Hot  fomentations  may 
also  be  used. 

"  Sore  teats  should  be  bathed  daily  w-ith  white  lotion  (one 
part  zinc  sulphate,  three-fourths  of  a  part  lead  acetate,  and 
thirty  parts  water)  until  healed." 

ECZEMA. 

Eczema,  and  similar  skin  troubles,  can  usually  be  success- 
fully treated  by  washing  or  spraying  with  a  one  per  cent 
solution  of  creolin,  or  some  of  the  well-known  tar  disinfectants. 
The  hog  should  be  kept  in  a  clean,  dry  place,  and  out  of  the 
sun  until  cured.  It  sometimes  requires  time  to  effect  a  cure, 
and  the  treatment  should  be  given  every  day  until  the  disease 
is  conquered. 

RHEUMATISM. 

In  northern  latitudes,  rheumatism  often  occurs  among 
swine,  especially  during  cold,  damp  weather.  Damp,  ill-ven- 
tilated pens  are  a  common  cause,  and  it  may  sometimes  be 
caused  by  overfeeding.  Piggeries  built  with  stone  or  concrete 
walls  and  floors  are  generally  more  dangerous  than  those  built 
of  wood.  When  such  walls  are  hollow  and  the  floors  insulated 
with  a  tar  layer,  they  are  much  safer. 

The  hog  becomes  verj'  lame  and  stiff  and  moves  about  with 
difficulty.  Sometimes  the  joints  become  swollen  and  very 
painful,  and  the  animal  becomes  practically  helpless.  In  such 
cases  it  is  seldom  that  the  hog  makes  a  recovery. 

The  feeder  must  be  on  his  guard  against  this  disease. 
Dr\',  well-ventilated  pens  and  careful  feeding  will  generally 
enable  him  to  avoid  disaster.  Animals  which  become  affected 
should  be  kept  in  dry,  warm  quarters.  Dr.  Craig  ("Diseases 
of  Swine  ")  says:   "  Salicylate  of  soda  is  the  most  useful  drug 


:U2  lUll.DlNCJS.  SANITATION',   AND   DISEASES 

to  give  in  this  (lis<'as(>.  The  dose  is  twenty  or  thirty  grains 
in  the  iov(\,  i»r  as  a  drench,  three  times  a  day.  Larger  doses, 
and  at  more  frequent  inten'als,  may  be  given  in  acute  cases 
for  a  short  time.  Quinine  and  bitter  tonics  can  also  be  given. 
Blistering  ointment.s  and  liniments  should  l)e  applied  to  the 
inflamed  articulations." 

RICKETS. 

In  this  disease,  which  is  commonly  found  among  young 
pigs,  there  is  enlargement,  bending,  and  distortion  of  tlie  bones 
of  the  joints  and  limit-;,  and  fractures  of  leg  bones  are  not 
unconmion.  The  b<jnes  do  not  contain  their  normal  propor- 
tion of  mineral  matter,  and  hence  lack  strength.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  disease  is  most  common  among  closely  in-bred  hogs. 
The  excessive  feeding  of  coi-n  throughout  generations  of  swine 
is  believed  to  be  an  exciting  cause,  or  any  conditions  which 
interfere  with  ])ro])er  nutrition,  such  as  disease  or  unsanitary 
surroundings,  may  predisi)ose  towards  the  disease  in  question. 

Dr.  Alexander  of  Wisconsin  says:  ''Pigs  affected  with 
rickets  can  siddom  be  profitably  treated.  Prevent  ion  is  to  be 
sought  by  avoiding  the  eaus(^s  mentioTied,  maintaining  sanitary 
conditions  about  the  hogs,  providing  ade(|uate  suj)plies  of 
various  feeds  rich  in  all  the  requisites  of  a  perfectly  nourished 
animal,  and  obviating  degeneracy  by  careful  selection  of  robust 
sows  and  timely  infusion  of  new  blood." 

Plenty  of  mineral  matter  should  be  provided  at  all  times 
during  the  life  of  the  pig.  Methods  and  fonns  of  supplying 
mineral  matter  have  already  been  given  in  this  book. 

PAUALVSIS. 

In  Virginia  Bulletin  180,  Dr.  Mayo  writes:  "The  disease 
first  appears  as  a  slight  loss  of  control  of  the  hind  legs,  as 


COMMON  DISEASES  OF  SWINE  343 

shown  by  a  weaving  of  the  bodv,  knuckling  of  the  fetlocks, 
and  tinally  a  paralysis  more  or  less  complete.  The  animal  is 
unable  to  raise  itself  on  its  hind  legs  and  often  drags  the  hind 
quarters  as  it  moves  about.  The  disease  occurs  in  swine  of 
all  ages.  This  disease  is  popularly  supposed  to  be  caused  by 
'  kidney  worm,'  but  there  is  no  evidence  to  support  this  belief. 
The  disease  seems  to  be  located  in  the  spinal  cord  at  the  lumbar 
region,  but  the  actual  cause  is  unknown  at  present. 

"  Some  cases  recover  without  treatment,  but  a  majority  of 
the  cases  prove  fatal.  Generally  the  treatment  is  to  give  a 
purgative  of  from  one-half  to  two  ounces  of  castor  oil,  depend- 
ing upon  the  size  of  the  animal,  followed  by  nourishing,  easily 
digested  feed.  Rubbing  the  back  vigorously  with  a  good 
veterinary  liniment  once  daily  is  also  beneficial." 

MANGE. 

Mange  is  caused  by  very  small  animal  parasites  called 
mange  mites,  which  burrow  in  the  outer  layer  of  the  skin. 

The  disease  is  most  troublesome  in  young  pigs,  causing 
great  irritation,  indicated  by  the  little  pigs  scratching  and  nib- 
bing themselves.  Later,  the  hair  stands  erect,  and  thick  scabs 
form  at  the  roots  of  the  hair  on  the  neck  and  shoulder  top  and 
about  the  ears  and  face.  Often  the  scabs  extend  along  the 
back  to  the  root  of  the  tail. 

Dr.  Mayo,  of  the  Virginia  Experiment  Station,  strongly 
recommends  the  lime  and  sulphur  dip,  which  is  made  as  fol- 
lows:  Take  f^  poimds  of  fresh  lime  and  slake  ^\^th  enough 
water  to  form  a  thick  paste.  Sift  into  this  paste  24-  pounds 
of  flowers  of  sulphur  and  mix  thoroughly  with  a  hoe.  Place 
in  a  kettle  with  25  or  30  gallons  of  water  and  boil  for  at  least 
one  hour,  then  add  enough  water  to  make  100  gallons  of  dip. 
The  dip  should  be  used  warm,  alKmt  100  or  110  degrees 
Fahrenheit. 


344  BUIU)INGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

The  coal-tar  dips,  such  as  chloro  naphtholeum,  zenoleum, 
and  others  of  this  class,  give  good  results,  and  are  more  con- 
venient when  a  small  number  of  animals  are  to  be  treated. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  animals  be  kept  wet  with  the 
solution  until  all  the  scabs  are  thoroughly  soaked  through, 
and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  scnib  with  a  stiff  brush  to  remove  as 
much  as  possible  of  the  scabs.  Two  thorough  treatments,  ten 
days  apart,  are  necessary. 

Pens  should  1k'  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected.  Sows 
should  U-  treated  as  well  as  the  young  pigs,  though  the  disease 
may  not  show  to  any  extent  on  the  older  pigs.  The  disease  is 
transmitted  by  contact,  and  the  young  pigs  almost  invariably 
become  infected  through  coming  in  contact  with  a  diseased 
mother. 

INTESTINAL    W^ORMS. 

Common  Round  Worm — The  most  common  intestinal 
worm  affecting  swine  is  the  round  worm,  wdiich  is  found 
mainly  in  the  small  intestine.  If  a  post-mortem  examination 
is  made  some  time  after  dearh,  the  w^orms  may  be  found  in 
the  stomach,  having  made  their  way  there  after  the  death  of 
the  animal.  The  worms  vary  from  six  to  eleven  inclies  in 
length,  and  tajier  somewhat  towards  th(^  extremities.  In  color 
they  are  usually  a  yellowish  white.  The  eggs  of  the  female 
pass  out  with  the  excrement  and  l>ecome  scattered  over  the 
premises.  Eventually,  some  of  them  are  taken  up  by  other 
hogs  along  with  tlicir  feed. 

They  do  not  seem  to  cause  the  hog  any  inconvenience  unless 
they  are  present  in  very  large  numbers,  when  they  may  cause 
digestive  troubles,  and  the  writer  has  known  death  to  result. 
There  can  be  little  doubt,  however,  that  a  ]iig  affected  with 
worms  cannot  make  the  Vst  use  of  its  feed,  even  though  it  may 
appear  quite  thrifty. 


CX)MMON  DISEASES  OF  SWINE  345 

Thorn-headed  Worm. — This  j^arasite  is  much  less  common 
than  the  round  worm.  It  is  usually  found  attached  to  the  wall 
of  the  intestines  bv  its  hooked  proboscis,  from  which  it 
derives  the  name  of  "'  thorn-headed.''  In  length  it  is  similar 
to  the  round  worm,  but  its  surface  is  somewhat  wrinkled,  and 
the  posterior  extremity  is  blunt.  Though  only  a  few  are 
usually  found  in  an  animal,  they  do  much  more  damage  than 
the  round  worm,  irritating  tlie  lining  of  the  intestine,  and 
sometimes  causing  severe  inflammation.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  distinguish  the  symptoms  from  other  intestinal  derange- 
ments, but  a  post-mortem  examination  w'ould  readily  reveal  the 
presence  of  the  wonn. 

Pin-Worm. — The  pin-worm  is  very  small  and  might  be 
easily  overlooked  in  a  careless  post-mortem.  It  is  usually 
found  near  the  beginning  of  the  large  intestine,  often  hidden 
in  the  folds  of  the  lining  membrane.  It  is  a  very  common 
parasite  of  s\vine,  and  does  not  seem  to  cause  much  incon- 
venience to  the  animal. 

Whip-Worm. — This  is  also  a  small  worm,  being  about  one 
and  one-half  inches  long.  It  attaches  its  head  to  the  lining 
of  the  intestine,  and  is  usually  found  in  the  beginning  of  the 
large  intestine.  The  anterior  portion  is  very  thin  and  hair- 
like, and  the  posterior  portion  is  thick  and  cylindrical  in  shape. 
Like  the  pin-worm,  it  does  not  seem  to  create  much  disturbance, 
but  must  be  more  or  loss  injurious. 

Treatment  for  Intestinal  Worms. — Preventive  treatment 
consists  in  keeping  buildings  and  surroundings  clean  and 
sanitary.  Feeding  in  filthy  yards  and  allowing  to  drink  stag- 
nant water  are  practices  which  favor  the  spread  of  parasites. 

As  to  medicinal  treatment,  the  writer  has  found  that  allow- 
ing hogs  to  have  access  to  a  mixture  of  charcoal  and  salt,  or 
charcoal,  wood  ashes,  and  salt,  seems  to  be  quite  effective  iu 
driving  out  round  worms. 


346  BFILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

Turpentine  is  commonly  recommended  for  worms,  especially 
the  thorn-headed  worm.  The  dose  is  a  teaspoonful  for  every 
eighty  or  one  hundred  pounds  live  weight  of  the  hogs  to  be 
treated.  It  can  be  given  in  the  feed,  and  the  hogs  should  be 
fasted  at  least  twelve  hours  before  treatment.  A  dose  each  day 
for  three  days  will  generally  prove  effective. 

Another  remedy  which  is  recommended  is  five  grains  of 
calomel  and  eight  grains  of  santonin  for  every  hundred  pounds 
live  weight  of  the  hogs.  This  remedy  can  also  be  given  in  tlic 
feed.  It  is  generally  advisable  to  give  a  physic  after  treatment 
for  worms. 

LUNG  WORMS. 

The  lung  worm  is  a  small,  tliread-like,  whitish  worm,  some- 
times found  in  large  numbers  in  the  air-passages  of  the  lungs. 
Ordinarily,  about  the  only  symptom  is  a  spasmodic  cough, 
which  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  cough  whicli  accompanies 
bronchitis.  Sometimes  tlie  irritation  caused  by  the  worms 
produces  inflammation  and  consolidation  of  the  lung  tissue, 
in  which  case  the  animal  dies,  but  in  many  cases  no  bad  effect 
is  apparent.  In  a  post-mortem  examination,  the  wonns  can 
be  detected  by  cutting  the  lung  near  the  apex  and  then  squeez- 
ing tlie  tissue  next  to  the  cut.  The  pressure  forces  the  thread- 
like worms  out  upon  the  cut  surface. 

There  is  practically  no  effective  treatment  for  this  parasite. 
Clean  pens,  in  wliicli  disinfectants  are  liberally  used,  and  clean, 
well-drained  yards  will  help  keej)  the  wonn  in  check.  Filthy 
yards  and  wallows  favor  its  development.  Ploughing  up  old 
hog  lots  and  re-seeding  them  is  also  a  preventive  measure. 

FOOT-AXI)-.MC)UTlI   DISEASE. 

Dr.  A.  S.  Alexander,  veterinary  editor  of  the  Breeder's  Ga- 
zette, gives  a  very  full  summary  of  the  nature  of  foot-and-mouth 


COMMON  oisp:ases  of  swine  347 

ilisease  iu  "The  (Jazctte  ''  of  November  12,  1914.  The  follo'yving 
points  are  taken  from  the  article  in  question :  "  So  highly  con- 
tagious is  the  character  of  foot-and-mouth  disease  that  its  eradica- 
tion and  control  necessitates  instant  isolation  and  slaughter  of 
atfeoted  animals,  deep  burial  of  the  carcasses  in  quicklime,  thor- 
ough cleansing,  disinfection,  and  whitewashing  of  the  infected 
premises,  strict  quarantine  of  all  infected  stables,  farms,  and 
areas,  restriction  of  the  movement  of  animals  and  pasteurization 
or  boiling  of  milk."  Hogs  usually  take  the  disease  from  cattle, 
hence  it  is  important  to  be  able  to  recognize  the  disease  in  any 
class  of  stock. 

Symptoms. — Following  are  some  of  the  characteristic  symp- 
toms as  given  by  Tlr.  Alexander :  "  The  temperature  of  the  cow 
rises  2  to  4  degrees,  the  pulse  accelerates,  appetite  diminishes, 
shivering  may  be  seen,  while  the  hair  is  roughened,  the  muzzle 
hot  and  dry,  the  teats  and  membranes  of  the  mouth  become  red, 
saliva  drools  or  froths  from  the  mouth,  and  a  characteristic  smack- 
ing of  the  tongue  is  heard.  Tenderness  of  the  feet  is  shown  by 
lameness  and  soreness.  Tn  two  to  three  days  large  and  small 
vesicles  (blisters)  develop  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  lips  and 
cheeks,  the  gums,  palate,  and  top  and  borders  of  the  tongue. 
.  .  .  Simultaneously,  with  the  eruption  of  vesicles  upon  the 
mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth,  vesicles  may  develop  in  cattle 
on  the  muzzle,  and  at  the  base  of  the  horns,  and  in  hogs  on  the 
snout.  .  .  .  Sheep,  goats,  and  swine  do  not  commonly  show  severe 
lesions  of  the  mouth  when  attacked  by  the  disease.  In  these 
animals  the  feet  are  most  affected." 

Dr.  Charles  F.  Ljmch,  iu  "Diseases  of  Swine,"  says:  "In 
an  outbreak  of  foot-and-mouth  disease,  cattle  are  usually  first 
affected,  and  the  disease  may  then  spread  to  the  swine.  The 
characteristic  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  the  linding  of  large 
numbers  of  vesicles  or  blisters  between  the  toes  and  along  the 
lower  part  of  the  mouth.  There  may  also  be  some  blisters  in  the 
mouth  and  on  the  tongue." 


348  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

What  to  Do. — Prohalily  onougli  has  boon  said  to  enable  the 
fanner  to  recognize  tliis  dread  disease.  If  he  should  be  so  un- 
fortunate as  to  find  it  on  his  fann  there  is  only  one  thing  to  do, 
and  that  is  to  notify  the  Government  authorities  immediately 
he  maizes  the  discovery.  It  is  of  no  use  to  try  to  hide  it,  because 
matters  will  only  go  from  bad  to  worse,  and  the  sooner  the  proper 
authorities  are  notified,  the  sooner  the  outbreak  can  be  brought 
under  control. 

OTHER   DISEASES. 

The  diseases  which  have  been  mentioned  represent  only  a 
few  of  the  troubles  which  may  affect  the  hog,  and  no  attempt 
has  been  made  to  treat  the  subject  from  a  veterinarian's  stand- 
point. There  are  other  diseases.  The  aim  has  been  to  note 
only  a  few  simple  remedies  for  common  ailments,  and  to 
emphasize  especially  the  importance  of  prevention,  rather  than 
the  cure  of  disease.  The  hog  is  not  easy  to  treat  for  disease, 
and  the  main  effort  of  the  farmer  should  be  towards  maintain- 
ing health  and  preventing  the  entrance  of  disease  into  his  herd. 
In  regard  to  the  long  list  of  diseases  which  have  not  been  men- 
tioned, together  with  many  of  those  included  in  the  list,  it 
will  generally  be  advisable  to  consult  a  skilled  veterinarian, 
but  the  services  of  a  veterinarian  can  often  Ix^  rendered  un- 
necessary if  the  fanner  inak(^s  the  best  use  of  the  means  at 
his  disposal. 

Examine  Carcasses. — Every  man  who  has  to  deal  with 
stock  should  make  a  i)ractice  of  holding  a  post-mortem  upon 
every  animal  that  dies  upon  the  fann.  He  will  soon  learn  what 
healthy  organs  should  look  like,  and  will  Ik*  able  to  locate  the 
seat  of  the  trouble.  If  lie  cannot  determine  the  nature  of  the 
disease,  he  can  take  ilie  diseased  organ  or  organs  to  a  veter- 
inarian, or  send  them  innnediately  to  the  nearest  Experiment 
Station,  and  have  the  disease  identified.     Experiment  Stations 


COMMON  DISEASES  OF  SWINE  349 

exist  for  the  purpose  of  helping  the  farmer,  and  the  officers  of 
the  stations  will  be  glad  to  send  him  any  information  they 
can  to  help  him  overcome  his  difficulties. 

ADMINISTRATION    OF    MEDICINE. 

Medicines  which  are  not  distasteful  can  be  given  with  the 
feed,  provided  the  hog  has  not  completely  lost  its  appetite. 
Wherever  possible,  the  administration  of  medicine  in  the  feed 
is  preferable  to  drenching. 

Dr.  Craig  (''Diseases  of  Swine")  recommends  the  fol- 
lowing method  of  drenching  hogs: 

"  To  hold  the  animal  while  drenching  it,  a  noose  of  sash- 
cord  or  quarter-inch  rope  can  be  placed  around  the  upper  jaw 
well  back  toward  the  angles  of  the  lips,  and  the  medicine  thrown 
into  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  with  a  dose  syringe.  As  tliere 
is  danger  of  the  hog  breaking  the  syringe,  it  is  best  to  use  a 
metal  one.  Sometimes,  when  the  drench  is  bulky  and  the  hog 
hard  to  hold,  it  is  necessarv'  to  elevate  tlie  head  and  raise  the 
fore-feet  off  the  ground.  For  this  purpose  a  pulley  and  rope 
wire  stretcher  is  recommended.  It  is  best  to  wait  until  the 
hog  has  become  quiet  and  well  under  control  before  giving  it 
the  drench,  as  there  is  some  danger  of  the  medicine  getting 
into  the  air-passages  and  doing  harm." 

The  writer  has  seen  more  than  one  hog  killed  in  the  opera- 
tion of  drenching.  If  the  drench  is  poured  too  rapidly  into 
the  throat,  it  is  almost  sure  to  be  drawn  into  the  lungs,  and 
the  hog  will  probably  die  in  a  few  minutes.  The  medicine 
should  be  poured  verv'  slowly,  and  it  is  best  to  pour  it  just 
inside  the  cheek  instead  of  into  the  throat. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  parts  are  attacked  by  the  cholera  germ? 

2.  Describe  the  symptoms  of  this  disease. 


350  BUILDINGS,  SANITATION,  AND  DISEASES 

3.  What  measures  should  be  taken  in  ease  of  an  ()utl)reak  of  cliolera 
among  swine? 

4.  Wliat  ean  he  done  to  make  lio;,'s  ininiune  to  eholera? 

5.  How  was   it  proved  tliat  tiie  serum   treatment  was  effeetive? 

6.  Describe  the  first  metliod  of  vaccination   (serum  alone). 

7.  Give  the  "  simultaneous  metliod." 

8.  Give  the  "  combination  method." 

0.  \Miat  is  the  proper  time  to  use  the  serum  in  a  herd? 

10.  What  are  the  differences  between  swine  plajrue  and  cholera? 

11.  Give  several  points  repardinji  bronchitis. 

12.  Give  causes  and   symptoms  of  pneumonia. 

13.  What  is  said  refrardinfr  the  wide-spread  existence  of  tuberculosis? 

14.  IIow  does  the  feedinjr  of  raw  skim-milk  sjjread  this  disease? 

15.  Why  are  hogs  sometimes  bought  subject  to  post-mortem  inspection? 

16.  What  can  you  say  of  the  difficulty  of  detecting  the  disease? 

17.  Mention  several  preventive  measures  against  tuberculosis. 

18.  Give  causes  and  dangers  of  indigestion. 

19.  Give  causes  of  and  remedies  for  constipation. 

20.  jMention  several  causes  of  scours  in  young  pigs. 

21.  What  are  some  of  the  best  remedies?     How  applied? 

22.  Mention  cau.ses  and  symptoms  of   infectious  sore  mouth. 

23.  What  treatment  is  recommended? 

24.  Describe  the  disease  called   "  thumps." 
2.5.  Give  causes  and  treatment. 

26.  Give  treatment  for   inllamed  udder  of  sows. 

27.  What  are  good  preparations  to  use  on  the  skin  for  eczema? 

28.  In  what  secti(ms  of  the  country  is  rheiimatisni  most  prevalent? 

29.  Give  its  causes  and  prevention. 

30.  Give  a  description  of  the  disease  called  rickets. 

31.  What  precautions   should  he  taken  to  prevent   it? 

32.  What  is  said  of  the  dangers  of  swine  paralysis? 

33.  Describe  mange,  and  give  remedies. 

34.  Tell   of  the   importance  of  the  trouble  from  common  round   worms. 

35.  Describe  the  thorn-headed   worm. 

.36.  Where   are    pin-worms   and    whip-worms    most   commonly    found    in 

Bwine  ? 

37.  ^Mention  several   preventions  and  remedies  for  inte.stinal  worms. 
3S.  What  are  the  dangers  from  lung  worms? 

39.  What  are  the  best  means  of  preventing  them? 

40.  Give  reasons  for  examining  the  diseased  parts  of  a  hog  after  death. 

41.  Give  suggestions  as  to  methods  of  giving  medicine  to  hogs. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

The  table  which  follows  has  been  taken  mainly  from  Prof. 
Henry's  "  Feeds  and  Feeding."  The  table  is  not  complete, 
bnt  it  covei*s  most  of  the  feed-stuffs  which  are  at  all  likely  to 
be  used  for  hogs,  and  a  number  which  are  not  suitable  for  hogs 
are  included  for  purposes  of  comparison. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  table  gives  the  composition  of  the 
feed-stuffs,  and  not  the  digestible  constituents.  There  are 
three  main  reasons  for  iising  this  style  of  table  in  preference 
to  one  showing  digestible  constituents.  In  the  first  place, 
digestion  trials  are  usually  conducted  with  nmiinants  (sheep 
or  cattle),  and  the  digestive  powers  of  ruminants,  in  some 
cases  at  least,  are  different  from  the  digestive  powers  of  the 
hog ;  consequently  the  table  might  be  misleading  if  it  purported 
to  show  the  digestible  matter  only.  In  the  second  place,  digestion 
trials  have  not  been  made  ^^"ith  all  of  the  feed-stuffs  mentioned. 
Finally,  in  the  case  of  feed-stuffs  Avhich  are  sold  under  guaran- 
tee, it  is  the  composition  and  not  the  digestible  matter  which 
is  sho\\Ti  in  the  analysis,  therefore,  when  purchasing  feeds,  a 
t^iblo  showing  the  composition  of  feed-stuffs  would  be  much 
more  Viiluable  for  purposes  of  comparison  than  one  showing 
digestible  matter. 

AftJi  represents  the  mineral  matter  in  the  feed,  and  is  useful 
in  building  up  the  skeleton  of  the  growing  animal. 

Crude  protein  is  the  nitrogenous  part  of  the  feed,  and  is 
useful  in  forming  muscle  or  lean  meat,  blood,  milk,  and  nearly 
all  tissues. 

(351) 


352  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Carbohydrates  are  similar  to  starch  or  sugar  in  composition. 
It  will  be  noted  that  they  axe  divided  into  two  classes,  fibre  and 
nitrogen-free  extract.  The  former  represents  tlie  woody  portion 
of  the  feed,  which  is  dithcult  to  digest.  The  nitrogen-free 
extract  is  the  more  soluble  and  easily  digested  portion  of  the 
carbohydrates,  as  starch  and  sugar.  Carbohydrates,  in  general, 
are  useful  in  forming  fat  and  keeping  up  the  heat  of  the  body. 

Fat  is  the  oily  part  of  the  feed,  and  its  functions  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  carlx)hydrates. 

It  would  be  extremely  valuable  to  the  purchaser  of  feed- 
stuffs,  if  there  were  some  exact  means  of  arriving  at  the  actual 
money  value  of  a  feed-stuff  as  compared  with  other  feed-stuffs. 
Unfortunately,  no  'such  method  of  comparing  values  is  avail- 
able, but  there  are  a  few  general  facts,  which  may  be  helpful 
in  studying  the  composition  of  a  feed. 

Generally  speaking,  home  grown  feeds  are  inclined  to  be 
low  in  protein,  but  contain  an  abundance  of  carbohydrates; 
consequently,  a  high  percentage  of  protein  is  always  a  strong 
recommendation.  Other  tilings  being  satisfactory,  we  would 
be  Avilling  to  pay  more  for  a  feed-stuff  rich  in  protein  in  making 
a  purchase. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  high  ])ercentage  of  fibre  is  always  a 
serious  objection,  especially  in  foods  for  hogs,  because  hogs 
cannot  handle  much  fi])re  to  advaiitiige.  Other  things  being 
nearly  equal,  the  feed-stuff  containing  a  high  percentage  of 
fibi-e  is  worth  less  per  ton  tlian  one  lower  in  fibre,  but  just  how 
much  less  will  depend  upon  the  percentage  of  other  constituents, 
and  upon  how  much  it  exceeds  the  otlier  in  fibre. 

Of  course  it  stands  to  reason  that  a  high  percentage  of 
water  necessarily  reduces  the  value  per  ton  of  a  feed-stuff. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 
Average  Composition  of  Feeding  Stuffs. 


353 


Feeding  Stuffs. 


Water. 


Per 

cent. 


Acorns 

Alfalfa,  green 

Alfalfa  hay 

Alsike  clover,  green 

Alsike  clover,  hay 

Apple  pomace 

Apples 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem  .  . . 

Barley 

Beet  pulp,  dried 

Beet  pulp,  wet 

Bermuda  grass,  green . . . 
Brewer's  grains,  dried  .  . 
Brewer's  grains,  wet  . . . . 

Broomcorn  seed 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  hulls 

Buckwheat  middlings . . . 

Buttermilk 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Cassava 

Chufa 

Cocoanut  cake 

Common  beet 

Common  millet,  green... 

Com 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Com  cob 

Cotton  seed 

Cotton-seed  hulls 

Cotton-seed  meal 

Cow^jea 

Cowpea,  green 

CowTaea  hay 

Cow's  milk 

Cow's  milk,  colostrum.  . 
Crimson  clover,  green. . . 
Distillers'  grains,  dried.. 

Dried  blood 

Dried  fish 

Emmer  (speltz) 

Flax  seed 

Fodder  com,  green 


55.3 
71.8 

6.4 
74.8 

9.7 
83.0 
80.8 
79.5 
10.8 

8.4 
89.8 
71.7 

8.7 
75.7 
12.8 
13.4 

8.2 
13.2 
12.8 
90.1 
90.0 
88.6 
66.0 
79.5 
10.3 
88.5 
80.0 
10.6 
15.1 
10.7 
10.3 
11.1 

7.0 
14.6 
83.6 
10.5 
87.2 
74.6 
80.9 

7.6 

8.5 
10.8 

8.0 

9.2 
79.3 


Ash. 


Per 
cent. 


Carbohydrates. 


1.0 

2.7 
8.6 
2.0 
8.3 
0.6 
0.4 

i.o 

2.5 
4.5 
0.6 
2.1 
3.7 
1.0 
2.8 
2.0 
4.9 
2.2 
5.0 
0.7 
0.8 
1.0 
0.7 
0.4 
5.9 
1.0 
1.0 
1.5 
1.5 
1.4 


Crude 
protein. 


Per 
cent. 


3.5 
2.8 
6.6 
3.2 
1.7 

14.2 
0.7 
1.6 
1.7 
2.0 
4.7 

29.2 
3.9 
4.3 
1.2 


2.5 

4.8 

16.3 

3.9 

12.8 

1.0 

0.7 

2.6 

12.0 

8.1 

0.9 

2.2 

25.0 

5.4 

9.9 

10.8 

12.6 

4.6 

26.7 

4.0 

2.6 

1.1 

1.1 

0.7 

19.7 

1.5 

1.5 

10.3 

8.5 

2.4 

18.4 

4.2 

45.3 

20.5 

2.4 

8.9 

3.6 

17.6 

3.1 

31.2 

84.4 

48.4 

11.5 

22.6 

1.8 


Fibre.  'Nit-|en- 
:  extract. 

Per 
cent. 


Per 
cent. 


4.4 
7.4 

27.1 
7.4 

25.6 
2.9 
1.2 
O.S 
4.2 

17.5 
2.4 
5.9 

13.6 
3.8 
7.0 

11.7 

32.9 

43.5 
4.4 

0^9 

1.3 

1.8 

2.2 

14.4 

0.9 

6.5 

2.2 

6.6 

30.1 

23.2 

46.3 

6.3 

3.9 

4.8 

21.2 


5.2 
11.6 


11.1 
7.1 
5.0 


34.8 

12.3 

39.2 

11.0 

40.7 

11.6 

16.6 

15.9 

68.7 

60.8 

6.3 

17.2 

42.3 

12.5 

64.3 

59.7 

37.9 

35.3 

44.3 

4.0 

5.5 

7.6 

30.2 

10.5 

38.7 

8.0 

10.5 

70.4 

64.8 

54.9 

24.7 

33.4 

24.6 

56.3 

7.1 

42.6 

4.9 

2.7 

8.4 

35.4 


62.9 
23.2 
12.2 


Fat. 


Per 
cent. 


1 
1 
2 

0 

2 

0.9 

0.4 

0.2 

1.8 

0.7 

'6'9 
6.7 
1.6 
3.2 
2.4 
3.5 
1.1 
6.8 
1.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.2 
6.6 

11.0 
0.1 
0.3 
5.0 
3.5 
0.5 

19.9 
2.2 

10.2 
1.5 
0.4 
2.6 
3.7 
3.6 


0. 
12. 

2. 
11. 

2. 


33.7 
0.5 


^ 


354  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Average  Composition  of  Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


Feeding  Stuffa. 


Gluten-feed 

Gluten  meal 

Hairy  vetch,  green 

Hairy  vetch,  hay 

Hog  millet,  green 

Hominy  feed  (chop) 

Horse  bean 

Horse  beans,  green 

Hungarian  grass,  green. . . 
Hungarian  grass  seed .... 

Kafir 

Kentucky  blue  grass.green 
Linseed  meal,  ninv  process 
Linseed  meal,  old  process 

Malt  sfjrouts 

Mangels 

Meat  and  bone  meal 

Meat  scrap 

Millet  seed 

Milo  maize  seed 

Molas,ses  beet  pulp,  dry.  . 
Molasses,  black  st  raji .... 

Mola.sses,  Porto  Rico 

Oat  dust 

Oat  feed 

Oat  hulls 

Oat  middlings 

Oats 

Oats  and  peas,  green 

Oats  and  vetch,  green. . . . 

Orchard  grass,  green 

Palmnut  cake 

Parsnips 

Pasture  gra.ss 

Peanut  cake 

Peanut    kernels,    without 

hull 

Peanut  vine,  hay 

Peas,  Canada  field 

Peas,  Canada  field,  green 

Potatoes 

Potato  pomace 

Pumpkin 

Rape 

Rape-seed  cake 


Water. 


Per 
cent. 


9.2 

9.5 

85.3 

11.3 

80.0 

9.6 

11.3 

84.2 

71.1 

9.5 

9.9 

65.1 

9.0 

9.8 

9.5 

90.9 

6.0 

10.7 

12.1 

9.0 

7.0 

20.9 

25.9 

6.5 

7.0 

7.4 

8.8 

10.4 

79.7 

80.0 

73.0 

10.4 

88.3 

80.0 

10.7 

7.5 
7.6 
15.0 
84.7 
79.1 
91.7 
90.9 
85.7 
10.0 


Ash. 


Per 
cent. 


Crude 
protein. 


Per 
cent. 


2.0 
1.5 
2.1 

7.9 
1.4 
2.7 
3.8 
1.2 
1.7 
5.0 
1.6 
2.8 
5.5 
5.5 
6.1 
1.1 
37.4 
4.1 
2.8 
2.3 
5.5 
8.8 
6.3 
6.9 
5.3 
6.7 
4.5 
3.2 
1.6 
1.8 
2.0 
4.3 
0.7 
2.0 
4.9 

2.4 
10.8 
2.4 
1.3 
0.9 
0.3 
0.5 
2.5 
7.9 


25.0 
33.8 

3.6 
17.0 

1.5 
10.5 
26.6 

2.8 

3.1 

9.9 
11.2 

4.1 
37.5 
33.9 
26.3 

1.4 
39.5 
71.2 
10.9 
10.7 

9.6 

'2^7 

13.5 

8.0 

3.4 

16.2 

11.4 

2.4 

3.0 

2.6 

16.8 

1.6 

3.5 

47.6 

27.9 

10.7 

23.7 

2.8 

2.1 

0.7 

1.3 

2.2 

31.2 


Carbohydrates. 


Fibre. 


Per 
cent. 


6.8 
2.0 
4.0 
25.4 
6.5 
4.9 
7.2 
4.9 
9.2 
7.7 
2.7 


9 


8.1 

3.0 

16.1 


18.2 

21.5 

30.7 

7.1 

10.8 

6.1 

6.3 

8.2 

24.0 

1.0 

4.0 

5.1 

7.0 
23.6 
7.9 
4.4 
0.4 
1.0 
1.7 
2.1 
11.3 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Per 
cent. 


53.5 

46.6 

4.6 

36.1 

10.2 

64.3 

50.1 

6.5 

14.2 

63.2 

71.5 

17.6 

36.4 

35.7 

44.9 

5.5 

6.3 

0.3 

62.6 

72.2 

61.3 

60.4 

65.1 

50.2 

55.3 

50.5 

56.5 

59.4 

9.6 

8.4 

13.3 

35.0 

10.2 

9.7 

23.7 


15.6 
42.7 
50.2 

6.3 
17 

6 

5 

7 


4 
4 
2 
0 
30.0 


Fat. 


Per 
cent. 


3.5 
6.6 
0.4 
2.3 
0.4 
8.0 
1.0 
0.4 
0.7 
4.7 
3.1 
1.3 
2.0 
7.8 
1.6 
0.2 
10.8 
13.7 
3.5 
2.8 
0.5 


4.8 
2.9 
1.3 
6.9 
4.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.9 
9.5 
0.2 
0.8 
8.0 


39.6 
4.6 
0.8 
0.5 


0.1 
0.1 
0.4 
0.5 
9.6 


CX^MI'OSlTIOxN  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 
Average  Composition  of  Feeding  Stub's. — Concluded. 


355 


Feeding  Stuffa. 


Red  clover,  green 

Red  clover,  hay 

Red  dog  flour 

Rice 

Rice  bran 

Rice  hulls 

Rice  meal 

Rice  poUsh 

Rough  rice 

Rutabaga  (Swede  turnip) 

Rye...... 

Rye  fodder 

Rye  middlings 

Sanfoin,  green 

Sanfoin,  hay 

Skim  milk,  centrifugal. . . . 

Skim  milk,  gravity 

Sorghum  fodder,  green . . . 

Sorghum  seed 

Sow's  milk 

Soy-bean 

Soy-bean,  cake 

Soy-bean,  green 

Starch  feed,  wet 

Sugar  beet 

Sugar-beet  molasses 

Sugar  cane,  green 

Sunflower  seed 

Sunflower-seed  cake 

Sweet  potato 

Tankage 

Timothy,  green ;  .  .  . 

Turnip,  fall 

Velvet  bean,  green 

Wheat 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  flour 

Wheat  middlings,  flour. . . 
Wheat   middlings,  stand- 
ard (shorts) 

Whey 


Water. 


Per 
cent. 


70.8 
15.3 

9.9 
12.4 

9.7 

8.8 
10.2 
10.8 
11.2 
88.6 

8.7 
76.6 
11.8 
75.0 
15.0 
90.6 
90.4 
79.4 
12.8 
80.8 


11.7 
11.3 
75.1 
68.8 
86.5 
20.8 
84.2 

8.6 
10.8 
68.3 

7.0 
61.6 
90.1 
82.2 
10.5 
11.9 
12.4 
10.0 

11.2 
93.8 


Ash. 


Per 
cent. 


2.1 
6.2 
2.6 
0.4 
9.7 

15.6 
8.1 
4.8 
4.9 
1.2 
2.1 
1.8 
1.7 
2.1 
7.3 
0.7 
0.7 
1.1 
2.1 
1.1 
4.8 
5.9 
2.6 
0.4 
0.9 

10.6 
1.1 
2.6 
6.7 
1.1 

15.9 
2.1 
0.9 
1.9 
1.8 
5.8 
0.4 
3.2 

4.4 
0.4 


Crude 
protein. 


Per 
cent. 


4.4 

12.3 

18.4 

7.4 

11.9 

3.2 

12.0 

11.9 

7.3 

1.2 

11.3 

2.6 

14.3 

4.4 

14.8 

3.1 

3.3 

1.3 

9.1 

6.2 

33.5 

42.7 

4.0 

5.0 

1.8 

9.1 

1.2 

16.3 

32.8 

1.9 

53.9 

3.1 

1.3 

3.5 

11.9 

15.4 

12.0 

19.2 

16.9 
0.6 


Carbohydrates. 


Fibre. 


Per 
cent. 


8.1 

24.8 

3.0 

0.2 

12.0 

36.2 

5.4 

3.3 

8.0 

1.3 

1.5 

11.6 

2.4 

6.0 

20.4 


6.1 
2.6 

4^5 
6.0 
6.7 
2.9 
0.9 

4^0 

29.9 

13.5 

1.1 

5.8 

11.8 

1.2 

5.1 

1.8 

9.0 

3^2 

6.2 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Per 
cent. 


13.5 
38.1 
63.5 
79.2 
46.6 
35.2 
51.2 
62.3 
66.6 

7.5 
74.5 

6.8 
66.9 
11.6 
39.5 

5.3 

4.7 
11.6 
69.8 

4.8 
28.3 
28.1 
10.6 
19.9 

9.8 
59.5 

9.0 
21.4 
27.1 
26.8 

5.6 
20.2 

6.3 

6.6 
71.9 
53.9 
74.0 
59.6 

56.2 
5.1 


Fat. 


Per 
cent. 


1.1 

3.3 
4.0 
0.4 

10.1 
1.0 

13.1 
7.2 


1.9 
0.6 
2.9 
0.9 
3.0 
0.3 


0.9 
0.5 
3.6 
7.1 
17.2 
6.0 
1.0 
3.0 
0.1 

0^5 
21.2 
9.1 
0.7 
11.8 
1.2 
0.2 
0.7 
2.1 
4.0 
1.2 
4.8 

5.1 
0  1 


SWINE   LITERATURE. 

Coburn,  F.  D.:    Swine  in  America.     New  York   (1909). 

Coburn,  F,  D.:    Swine  Husbandry.     New  York   (1888). 

Coleman,  John :    Cattle,  Slieep,  and  Pigs  of  Great  Britain.    London  ( 1887  ) . 

Craig,  John  A.:    Judging  Live  Stock.      (1904.) 

Curtis,  George  W. :    Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine.      (1888.) 

Dawson,  H.  C:    Tlie  Hog  Book.     Chicago   (1911). 

Dietrich,  Wm.:    Swine.     Cliicago   (1910). 

Harper,  M.  W. :    Manual  of  Farm  Animals.     New  York    (1911). 

Harris,  Joseph:    Harris  on  the  Pig.     New  York    (1870). 

Long,  James:    The  Book  of  the  Pig.     London. 

Low,  David:     On  the  Domesticated  Animals  of  the  British  Isles,  London 

(1842). 
Plumb,  Charles  S. :    Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals.     Columbus,  Ohio 

(190G). 
Ronunel,  Geo.  M.:    Tlie  Hog  Industry.     Washington   (1904). 
Sanders,  J.  H.:    The  Breeds  of  Live  Stock.     Chicago   (1887). 
Sliaw,  Tliomas:    The  Study  of  Breeds  in  America.     New  York   (1900). 
Shepard,  S.  M. :    The  Hog  in  America.     Indianapolis   (1896). 
Sidney,  Samuel:     The  Pig.     London    (1871). 

Spencer,  Sanders:  Pigs:  Breeds  and  Management.  London  (1897). 
Various  Writers:  The  Best  Breeds  of  British  Stock.  London  (1898). 
Walker,  John:    Pigs  for  Profit.     London   (1905). 

Wallace,  Robert:    Farm  Live  Stock  of  Great  Britain.     Edinburgh    (1907). 
Youatt,  Wm.,  and  Martin,  W.  C.  L.:    The  Hog.     New  Y^ork   (1863). 


INDEX 


Acorns,  200 

Administration  of  medicine,  349 

Alfalfa,  green,  186,  187 

Alfalfa  hay,  feeding  of,  186-188 

methods  of  feeding,  201-203 

tea  from,  211 
Alfalfa  meal.  201 
Alfalfa  pasture,  193,  249 

compared   with   rape,    188, 
189 

with  com,  158,  160 
Apples,  208 

Artichokes,  Jerusalem,  198,  199,  251 
A-shaped  pen,  309-312 
Ashes,  with  com,  151 

Bacon,  causes  of  softness,  133-135 

sugar  cured,  286,  287 
Bacon  hogs,  American,  277,  278 

English,  278 
Bacon  type,  9,  10 

breeds  of,  19 

description  of,  13-19 

feed  required  compared  with 

land  type,  44 
scale  of  points,  20-22 
Barley,  characteristics  of,  164 

compared  with  corn,  165,  166 
compared    with    frosted    wheat, 

168,  169 
compared  with  millet  seed,  171 
compared  with  rye,  170 
for  pasture,  249 
palatability  of,  166 
with  corn,  153,  154 
Barrows  vs.  sows,  141 
Beans,  a  cause  of  soft  bacon,  135 
methods  and  results  of  feeding, 
171,  172 
Beet  pulp,  178 
Beet-sugar  molasses,  178 
Beginners,  suggestions  to,  262-268 
Berkshire,  comparative  tests,  41,  42 
description,  45,  46 
distribution,  49 
Large  English,  49,  50 
origin  and  history,  46-49 
score  card,  52,  53 


Berkshire,  types,  49,  50 

utility,  50-52 
Bermuda  grass,  250,  251 
Big  Chinas,  55 
Black -strap     molasses,     178,     179, 

211 
Blood  meal,  150,  210 
Blue  grass,  as  pasture,  192,  193 
Boar,   the,   breeding  crate  for,  224, 
225 

chapter  on,  219-225 

conformation  of,  36 

exercise  for,  220 

feeding,  222-224 

market  class,  278 

removing  tusks,  220,  221 

selection  of,  34-37,  263 

use  of,  219 
Bone  meal,  151,  158-160 
Bones,  breaking  strength  of,  132,  151, 

152 
Bran,  fermented,  214 

wheat,  173 
Breaking  strength  of  bones,  132,  151, 

152 
Breed,  choice  of,  262,  263 
Breeder,  25,  26 
Breeding  and  selection,  chapter  on, 

25-38 
Breeding  crate,  224,  225 
Breeds,  key  to,  126-128 

relation  to  economy  of  produc- 
tion, 41-44 
Brewers'  grains,  178 
Brine,  286,  287 

Brine  curing  and  dry  curing,  286 
Bronchitis,  334 
Buckwheat,  170,  171 
liuildings,  chapter  on,  295-318 

cheap,  264 

dryness,  295,  296 

plans  of,  298-308 

portable  pens,  308-318 

ventilation,  296-298 
Business  methods,  268 
Butcher  hogs,  275-277 
Buttermilk,  210 
Byfield  swine,  55 

357 


358 


INDEX 


Carbohydrates,  requirement  of,  136 
Carrots,  206 
Cassava,  207 
Castration,  237,  23S 
Charcoal,  use  of,  1S3,  184 
Chesliiro,  (IcscTijjtion,  107 
distril)Ution,  107 
origin  and  history,  107 
score  card,  108,  109 
types,  107,  108 
utihty,  108 
Chester  \Vhite,  comparative  tests,  41, 
42 
description,  65 
distribution,  67 
Improved,  66 
O.  I.  C.  strain,  67 
origin  and  history,  65-67 
score  card,  70-74 
typos,  (iS,  ()•) 
utility,  (')'.),  70 
Choice  steam  lard,  270,  280 
Chufas,  200,  2r)0,  2')^, 
Classification  of  hogs,  273 
Cleanliness,  319 

Clover,  compared  with  rape,  190 
for  pasture,  191,  192,  193 
with  barley,  249 
with  rape,  249 
with  ra|)c  and  oats,  194 
with  wheat  or  rye,  250 
Combination  method  of  vaccinating, 

333 
Composition   of  feeding  stufTs,   351- 

355 
Condiniental  stock  feeds,  181-183 
Conformation  of  boar,  3(i 
Consti()ati()n,  337 
Cooking  feed,  213 

weed  seeds,  181 
Corn,  causes  soft  bacon,  134 
characteristics  of,  131 
compared  with  barley,  165,  166 
comparefl      with      corn-and-cob 

meal,  174,  175 
compared  with  hominy  feed,  173, 

174 
compared  with  kafir,  170 
compared  with  peas,  164 
compared  with  rice  and  its  bj'- 

products,  ISO,  ISl 
compared  with  soriilium  seed,  179 
compared  with  wheat,  1(57 
hogging  olT,  146   1  19,  250 
influence  on  carcass,  132 


Corn,  pounds  of  pork  from  bushel  of, 
142 
shelled,  meal,  soaked,  and  dry, 

144,  145 
whole  vs.  ground,  142-144 
with  barlo}',  shorts,  meat  meal, 

and  tankage,  153,  154 
with  blood  meal  and  pea  meal, 

150 
with  bone  meal  and  ashes,  151 
with  cottonseed  meal,  162,  176, 

177,  254 
with  meat  meal,  154,  155 
with  meat  meal,    tankage,   and 

shorts,  155-157 
with  shorts,  skim  milk,  tankage, 
groimd  bone,  and  alfalfa  i)as- 
ture,  158-160 
with  skim  milk,  tankage,  linseed 
meal,   soy  beans,   and  alfalfa, 
157,  158 
with  soy  bean   meal  and  linseed 

meal,  161,  162 
with      soy      bean      meal      and 

middlings,  152 
with  tankage,  162 
with  tankage  and  linseed  meal, 

160,  161 
with  wheat  middlings  and  skim 
milk,  151,  152 
Corn-and-cob  meal,  174,  175 
Correctives,  245,  247 
Cost  at  ditTerent  ages,  244,  245 
Cost  of  raising  jugs,  240-242 
Cottonseed  meal,   characteristics  of, 
176 
effect     on     hogs     following 

steers,  177 
general      recommendations, 

176 
(piantity  to  feed,  176 
to  prevent  poisoning,  163 
with    corn,    162,    176,    177, 
254 
Cow-peas,  for  ])asture,  194,  195,  197, 
198,  249,  250 
seed,  17'J 

vs.  soy  beans,  198 
with  corn,  250 
Cross,  breeding,  30,  31 
Curing  pork,  l)rine  and  drv,  286 
chapter  on,  285-290 
cooling,  285 
drv-cured,  2S7 
keeping,  289.  290 


INDEX 


359 


Curing  pork,  liquid  smoke,  289 
plain  salt,  286 

smoke  flavoring  powder,  289 
smoking,  2S7-2S9 
sugar  cured  hams  and  bacon, 

2SG,  2S7 
trying  out  lard,  290 
vessels  for,  285 

Dipping,  324,  325 
Diseases,  bronchitis,  334 

chapter  on,  327-350 

const ipiat ion,  337 

eczema,  341 

foot-and  mouth  disejise,  346-348 

hog  cholera,  327-333 

home  treatment,  348 

indigestion,  337 

infectious  sore  mouth,  339 

inflammation  of  the  udder,  3-10, 
341 

mange,  343,  344 

medicine,  administration  of,  349 

paralysis,  342,  343 

pneumonia,  334,  335 

post  mortems,  348 

rheumatism,  341,  342 

rickets,  342 

scours,  338 

swine  plague,  333,  334 

thumps,  339,  340 

tuberculosis,  335-337 

worms,  344-346 
Disinfection,  319,  320 
Distillers'  grains,  178 
Draughts,  298 
Drenching,  349 
Dry  cured  pork,  287 
Dryness  of  piggery,  295,  296 
importance  of,  322 
Dry  vs.  wet  feed,  214 
Duroc,  76 

Duroc-.Iersey,  comparative  tests,  41, 
42 

description,  75 

disqualifications,  78 

distribution,  77 

origin  and  history,  75,  76 

score  card,  78-82 

types,  77 

utility,  78 

Eczema,  341 
Emmer,  171 
English  bacon  hogs,  278 


Essex,  description,  110 
distribution,  111 
origin  and  history,  110,  111 
score  card,  112,  113 
types.  111 
utihty.  111,  112 
Ether  extract  or  fat,  requirement  of, 

136,  137 
Exercise,    influence    on    firmness    of 
meat,  134 
the  boar,  220 
the  sow,  228,  229 
young  pigs,  237 

Fall  rye,  for  pasture,  197,  250,  251 
Farrowing,  232 
jiens  for,  303 

portable  pens  for,  309-317 
P'at  or  lard  type,  9 

breeils  of,  13 

descrii)tion  of,  10-13 

feed  required  comjjared  with 

bacon  typo,  44 
scale  of  points,  19,  20 
Fattening,  chapter  on,  243-261 
correctives,  245-247 
cost  increases  with  age,  244,  245 
money  returns  for  feed,  247,  248 
quantity  of  feed,  244 
regularity,  244 
winter,  243,  244 
Feed  for  maintenance,  140 
Feeding  and  management, 
of  boar,  219-225 
of  fattening  hogs,  243-261 
of  sow,  226-235 
of  young  pigs,  236-242 
Feeding  for  health,  322 
Feeding  standard,  135-137 

criticism  of,  138,  139 
how  to  use,  137,  138 
Feeding  stuffs,  composition  of,  351- 

355 
Fermenting  feed,  214 
Floors,  302,  303 
Flour,  173 

Foot-and-mouth  disease,  346-348 
Frosted  wheat,  compared  with  barley 
168,  169 
fed  in  combinations,  167 

Garbage,  211,  212 
Gentry,  advice  on  in-breeding,  27 
Gestation,  period  of,  227 
table  of,  269 


360 


INDEX 


Gluten  meal,  175 

Grade  breeding,  31 

Grades  of  hops,  market,  273-278 

Grain,  on  pasture,  196,  200,  201 

Grinding,  corn,  141,  144,  14.5 

small  grains,  213,  214 
Ground  bone,  158-lGO 

Hairy  vetch,  192 
Hampshire,  description,  83 

origin  and  history,  83-85 

score  card,  86-89 

typos,  85 

utility,  85,  86 
Hams,  sugar  cured,  286,  287 
Heavy  hogs,  274,  275 
Heredity.  31-34 
Hog  cholera,  327-333 
Hogging  off  corn,  146-149,  250 
Hogging  off  rye,  196 
Hog  motor  grinder  vs.  hopper,  214, 

215 
Hogs  following  steers,  139,  140 

effect  of  cottonseed  meal  on, 

177 
supplemental  feeds  for,  140 
Hog  supply,  the,  3 
Hog  wallows,  325 
Home  grown  feeds,  5 
Homing  feed  vs.  corn,  173,  174 
Hopper  vs.  hog  motor  grinder,  214, 
215 

vs.  trough,  215,  216 

Immunization  against  cholera,  330- 

333 
Improved  Chester  White,  66 
Improved  Essex,  110 
In-breeding,  benefits,  28 

dangers  of,  29 

Gentry  on,  27,  28 

to  be  avoided,  29 
Indigestion,  337 
Individuality,  31 
Infectious  sore  mouth,  339 
Inflammation  of  the  udder,  340.  341 
Insulation  of  floors,  302,  303 
Irish  Grazier,  56 

Japan  clover,  251 

Jersey  Red,  75 

Jerusalem  artichokes.  198,  199,  251 

Kafir,  compared  with  corn,  170 

with  soy  bean  meal,  170 


Keeping  cured  meat,  289,  290 
Key  to  breeds,  126-128 

Lard,  "choice,"  "prime  steam,"  279, 
280 
tr>-ing  out,  290 
Lard  type,  see  fat  type 
Large    Black,    description,    distribu- 
tion, origin  and  history,  utility,  121, 
122 
Large  White,  90 

Large  Yorkshire,  comparative  tests, 
41,  42 
description,  90 
distribution,  92 
origin  and  historj%  90-92 
score  card,  95,  96 
types,  92,  93 
utility,  93-95 
Lean  meat,  development  of,  132,  133 
Lcspedeza,  251 
Lice,  treatment  for,  322-325 
Light,  importance  of,  298,  322 
Linseed    meal,    substitute    for    skim 
milk,  175,  211 
use  of,  175 

with    corn,    157,   158,   160- 
162 
Liquid  smoke,  289 
Literature,  3.56 
Litters,  number  of,  227,  228 
Lung  worms,  346 

Maintenance,  feed  for,  140 

Mange,  343,  344 

Mangels.  206 

Markets  and  swine  products,  chapter 
on,  273-284 
grades  of  hogs,  273-278 
hog  iiroducts,  279-283 _^ 
market  classification,  273 

Marketing  yovmg  pigs.  266-268 

Meal  equivalent,  of  roots,  205 
of  skim  milk,  209 

Meat  meal,  1.53-157 

Medicine,  administration  of,  349 

Mess  pork,  279 

Middle  White,  description,  distribu- 
tion, origin,  utility.  123-126 

Middlings,  see  wheat  middlings 

Millet  seed,  171 

Mineral  matter,  requirement  of,  137 

Mixtures,  for  pasture,  198 

Molasses,  beet-sugar,  178 

black-strap,  178,  179,  211 


INDEX 


361 


Money  returns  for  feed,  247,  248 
Mule-foot,   description,   distribution, 
origin  and  history,  utility,  120,  121 

Oat  feed.  177,  178 
Oats,  169,  170 

ifor  pasture,  249 
Oats,  rape,  and  clover  pasture,  194 
O.  I.  C.  strain  of  Chester  White,  67 

Packing  hogs,  277 
Paralysis,  342,  343 
Pasture,  amount  of  grain  on,  196,  200, 

201 
Pasture  and  soiling  crops,  chapter  on, 
186-204 
for  the  South,  248-259 
Pasture  vs.  soiling,  200 
Pea  meal  with  corn,  150 
Peanuts,  179,  180 

for  pasture,  199,  250,  255 
Peas,  Canada  field,  164 
Pedigree,  31-34 
Pigeon  grass  seed,  181 
Piggeries,  Brethour's,  298-304 
plans  of,  298-308 
small,  304,  305 
Southern,  306-308 
Pigs,  feeding  and  management,  after 
weaning,  238-340 
before  weaning,  236,  237 
castration,  237,  238 
chapter  on,  236-242 
cost  of  raising,  240-242 
exercise,  237 
market  definition,  277 
marking,  266-268 
reviving  weak  or  chilled,  236 
Pin-worm,  345 
Place  of  hog  upon  farm,  3-8 
Plans  of  piggeries,  298-308 
Pneumonia,  334,  335 
Poland-China,  comparative  tests,  41, 
42 
description,  54 
distribution,  57 
origin  and  history,  54-57 
score  card,  59-64 
types,  57,  58 
utility,  58,  59 
Pork,  curing  of,  285-290 
dry  cured,  287 
from  bushel  of  corn,  142 
mess,  279 
plain  salt,  286 


Pork,  production  in  South,  248-261 
Portable  pens,  A-shaped,  309-312 

for   winter   farrowing,    314- 

316 
for    winter    quarters,     308, 

309 
shed-roof,  312-314 
Post  mortems,  importance  of,  34S 
Potatoes,  206 
Preparation  of  feed,  chapter  on,  213- 

216 
Prime  steam  lard,  280 
Production,  cheapening  of,  264 
cost  at  difTerent  ages,  244,  245 
cost  of  young  pigs,  240-242 
possibilities  of,  247,  248 
Products  of  hogs,  279-283 
Profit  from  hogs,  4-8 
Protein,  requirement  of,  135,  136 
Pumpkins,  208 
Pure-bred  hogs,  7,  8 

Quarantine,  321,  322 

Rape,    compared    with   alfalfa,    188, 
189 
compared  with  clover,  190 
compared  with  soy  beans,   190, 

191 
for  pasture,  189,  190,  249 
with  oats  and  clover,  194 
Records,  265,  266 
Red  clover,  see  clover 
Registering,  264,  265 
Relation  of  breed  to  economy  of  pro- 
duction, 41-44 
Rheumatism,  341,  342 
Ribs,  or  short  ribs,  279 
Rice,  bran,  180,  181 

by-products,  180,  181 
hulls,  180 
meal,  180 
polish,  180 
rough  red,  180 
with  cottonseed  meal,  177 
Rickets,  342 

Roots,  dairy  by-products,  etc.,  chap- 
ter on,  205-212 
effect  of,  205,  206 
meal  equivalent  of,  205 
relative  merits  of,  206 
Round  worm,  344 
Ruptured    pigs,    castration    of,    237, 

238 
Rutabagas,  206,  251 


362 


INDEX 


Rye,  compared  witli  barley,  170 
for  pasture,  197,  250 
hogging  off,  196 
with  vetch,  251 

Sand  vetch,  192 

Sanitation,  chapter  on,  319,  326 

cleanhness,  319 

dipping,  324,  325 

disinfection,  319,  320 

feeding  for  health,  322 

hog  wallows,  325 

lice,  322-325 

quarantine,  321,  322 

ventilation  and  dryness,  322 
Scale  of  points,  bacon  hog,  20-22 
fat  or  lard  hog,  19,  20 
Sec  also  under  each  breed 
Score  card,  see  under  each  breed 
Scours,  338 
Scrub  methods,  2G0 
Scrubs,  43 

not  economical,  260 
Selection,  of  boar,  34-37,  263 

of  sow,  37,  38 
Serum  alone  method,  332 
Shed-roof  pen,  312-314 
Short  ribs,  279 

Shorts,  with  corn,  153,  155,  158 
Siamese  swine,  47 
Simultaneous  method  of  vaccinating, 

333 
Skim  milk,  meal  equivalent  of,  208, 
209 

substitutes  for,  175,  210,  211 

sweet  vs.  sour,  209,  210 

value  of,  209 

with  corn,  151,  152,  157~1()0 
Small  Hlack  swine,  114 
Small  White  swine,  114-117 
Small    Yorkshire,    description,    etc., 

110-119 
Smoke  flavoring  powder,  2S9 
Smoke,  li(}uid,  2S9 
Smoking  meat,  2S7-2S9 
Soaking,  corn,  145 

feed  in  general,  214 
Soft  bacon,  133-135 
Soft  coal,  use  of,  1S3,  184 
Soiling  and  j^asture  crojis,  see  i)iustiue 
Soiling  vs.  pasture,  200 
Sore  mouth,  infectious,  339 
Sorghum,  for  i)asturc,  194,  197,  251, 
255 

seed,  179 


South,  Uie,  advantages  of,  248 
pasture  crops  for,  248-259 
pork  production  in,  248-261 
Sow,  the,  age  of  breeding,  226 
best  time  for  farrowing,  227 
breeding  mature,  226,  227 
chapter  on,  226-235 
eating  pigs,  235 
exercise,  228,  229 
farrowing,  232-234 
feeding  and  management,  229 

284 
one  or  two  litters,  227 
period  of  gestation,  227 
selection  of,  37,  38 
Sows  vs.  barrows,  141 
Soy  bean  meal,  with  corn,  152,  161, 
162 
with  kafir,  170 
Soy  beans,  comi)ared  with  rape,  190, 
191 
for  ])asture,   194,   195,  250. 

255 
vs.  cow-peas,  198 
Spanish  peanuts,  see  peanuts 
Spayed  vs.  unspayed  sows,  141 
Speitz  (emmer),  171 
Squashes,  208 
Stags,  278 

Starting  in  business,  262 
Steaming  feed,  213 
Stock  beets,  251 
"Stock  feeds,"  criticism  of,  181,  182 

formulas  for,  183 
Substitutes  for  skim  milk,  175,  210, 

211 
Suffolk  swine,  114-115 
Sugar  beet  pulp,  178 
Sugar  beets,  2(H) 

Sugar  cured  lianis  and  bacon,  280,  287 
Suggestions  to  beginners,  chaijter  on, 

262  270 
Supplementary  feeds  with  corn,  150- 

163,  253-255 
Supi)ly  of  hogs,  3 
Swede  turnips  (rutabagas),  206 
Sweet  potatoes,  206,  207,  250 
Swine  plague,  333,  334 

Tamworth,  comparative  tests,  41,42 
description,  97 
distrihiitioii,  9S,  99 
origin  and  history,  97,  98 
standanl  of  excellence,  101,  102 
utility,  99-101 


INDEX 


363 


Tankage,   substitute  for  skim  milk, 
210,  211 
witli  corn,  153,  155-162 
Thin  Rind.  cS3 
Tliorn-licadptl  worm,  345 
Thumps,  339,  340 
Timothy,  for  jnist^iro,  191,  192 
Tonic  mixture,  1S3,  1S4 
Trough  vs.  hopper,  21.5,  216 
Trying  out  hird,  290 
Tuberculosis,  335-337 
Turnips,  251 

Tusks,  removal  of.  220,  221 
Types  of  swine,  9-22 

Udder,  inflammation  of,  340,  341 
Utility,  in  breeding,  26,  27 

Vaccinating  against  cholera,  332,  .333 
Various     grains,     meals,     and     by- 
products, chapter  on,  164-184 
Velvet  bean,  192,  2.52 
Ventilation,  296-298 

importance  of,  .322 
Vessels  for  curing  meat,  285 
Vetch,  hairy  and  smooth,  192,  249 
with  Bermuda  grass,  250 
with  wheat,  251 
Victoria,     description,    distribution, 
origin    and    history,     score    card, 
utility,  103-106 


Wallows,  32.5 

Warmth  in  piggerj',  298 

Water,  requirement  of,  135 

Weed  seeds,  181 

Wet  vs.  dry  feed,  214 

Wheat,  characteristics  of,  166 

comjiared  with  buckwheat,  170, 
171 

compared  with  corn,  107 

compared  with  millet  seed,  171 

frosted,  167-169 

pasture,  2.50 

with  vetch,  251 
Wheat  bran,  173 
WTieat  middlings,  with  corn,  151,  1.52 

uses  of,  172 
Whey,  meal  equivalent  of,  210 

separated  vs.  ordinary,  210 

.sweet  vs.  sour,  210 
\Miip-worm,  345 
Whole  corn,  142-146 
Wiltshire  side,  9,  280,  283 
Worms,  intestinal,  344-346 

lung,  346 

treatment  for,  345,  346 

Yorkshire,  Large,  see  Large  York.shire, 

41,  90 
Small,  see  Small  Yorkshire,  116- 

119 
Young  pigs,  see  pigs,  236-242 


xf^   ^:;^^^^u4..c.o.U^ 


/ 


"••jf?^ 


